The Syllable ( Seema Ma'am )

The Syllable

The unit that is next in hierarchy to the speech sound is the syllable. A word is made up of one or more syllables. Words like girl, boy, shirt, ant and bus have one syllable each. They are also called monosyllabic words. Words like teacher, doctor, apple and table have two syllable speech and are known as disyllabic words. There are some words which have more than two syllables and are known as polysyllabic words.

Usually syllable division is marked with a ‘-‘ (hyphen) like tea-cher, pen-cil, re-mark and po-pu-la-tion. It is not always possible to mark the syllable division in the orthographic representation (spelling form of English words). For example, in the word examination it is difficult to mark the syllable division. However in the phonetic transcription of the word it becomes easier to mark the syllable division | ɪg-zæ-mɪ-ˈneɪ-ʃn |

The vowel in a syllable is its central element and is called the nucleus of a syllable. The consonants that begins a syllable is known as the releasing consonants and the one that comes in the end of syllable is called the arresting consonants. The Miletus nucleus is the central element of a syllable and the realising and arresting consonants are optional elements. The nucleus is symbolised as ‘V’ and the consonants are symbolised as the ‘C’. For example, in the word cat |kæt| there is a realising consonants a nucleus and a arresting consonants. The syllable structure of this word is CVC.
There are various syllable structure in English they are –
V – air
VC – Up
CV – two
CVC – bed
CCVC – trip
CCCVC – stream
CVCC – last
CVCCC – tempt
CVCCCC – tempts

Syllables structure in English.

V
Some syllables have only the nucleus and hence the structure is V. For eg Eye |ai |, Ear | ea |

VC
Some syllables have the nucleus and an arresting consonant and hence the structure VC. Up |ʌp| and all |ɔːl|

CV
Some syllables have the releasing consonant and the nucleus and hence the structure CV. She | ʃiː| and so |səʊ|

CVC
Some syllables have a releasing consonant, a nucleus and arresting consonant hence the structure. Some|sʌm|
Boat |bəʊt|

CCVC
Some syllables have two releasing consonants, one nucleus and one arresting consonant and hence the structure CCVC plate |pleit| and spin |spin|

CCCVC
The words with this syllable structure have three releasing consonants and an arresting consonant. Stream |stri:m|, screen |skri:n|

CVCC
The words with this syllable structure have one releasing consonant, a nucleus and two arresting consonants. For example : past |pɑːst|, cold |kəʊld|

CVCCC
Some syllables have one releasing consonant, a nucleus and three arresting consonants, hence the structure CVCCC.
For example : text |tekst| and tents |tents|

CVCCCC
Some syllables have one releasing consonant, a nucleus and four arresting consonants and hence the structure CVCCCC. For example tempts |tempts| , texts |teksts|

English allows upto three consonants to begin a syllable and upto four consonants to end a syllable. Such a sequence begin of consonants at the beginning or the end of a syllable is called consonant clusters. A sequence of consonants at the beginning or end without a vowel between them should occur within a syllable in order to be called a consonant cluster. The |st| and |nd| in the word stand are examples of consonants clusters but the |mb| in the word member is not. This is because |m| is the arresting consonant of the first syllable and |b| is the releasing consonant of the second syllable.

A syllable that ends in a consonant is called a closed syllable while the one that ends in a vowel is called an open syllable. Good, bad, pen, out, date and camp are examples of closed syllables and go, tea, see, crow, show are examples of open syllables.

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Word Accent

A word is a linguistic entity composed of one or more phonemes. The word ‘I’, ‘oh’ consist of one phoneme each- the diphthong |ai| and |əʊ| respectively. The words ‘ she’ and ‘Jaw’ have two phonemes each-|ʃ | |I:| for she and | ʤ | and |ɔː | for jaw. The word ‘cat’ and ‘some’ have three phonemes each-  |k|  |æ|  |t| and |s| | ʌ| |m|

In an English word of more than one syllable, one of the syllable is pronounced with greater prominence than the other(S). The syllable that is pronounced more prominently is said to be ‘accented’ or ‘to receive the accent’. The greater prominence of a syllable may be due to stress or greater breath force, but often the length of the vowel in a syllable, stress and pitch change works together to give prominence to a particular syllable.

In polysyllabic words more than one syllable may be prominent. For example : In the word  | ɪg-zæ-mɪ-ˈneɪ-ʃn | which has five syllables, the syllable that has the maximum prominence is the fourth syllable |ˈneɪ | the syllable that has next degree of prominence is the second syllable |zæ|.  The syllable which receives the maximum prominence is said to receive primary accent and any other prominent syllable in the same word is said to receive secondary accent. Primary accent is marked with a vertical bar above and in front of the syllable to which it refers. Secondary accent is marked with a vertical bar below and infront of the syllable to which it refers. For example examination
ɪg-zæ-mɪ-ˈneɪ-ʃn |

| ˌnəʊtɪfɪˈkeɪʃən |

For a native speaker of English. It is difficult to place the accent on the correct syllable of a word. This is because in English words the accent is both free and fixed. It is free in the sense that it is not associated with a particular syllable of a word. In words like teacher, wisdom and doctor the first syllable receives the accent where as in words like behave, remark and canteen, the accent is on the second syllable. The accent in English words is fixed in the sense that the main accent always falls on a particular syllable. Since, the accent in English words is not associated with a particular syllable. A non native speaker of English will have to learn this very important aspect of spoken English.

Another difficulty in putting the correct word accent in English words arises due to a shift in accented syllable. In derivatives a shift is quite common.

For example :
academy  : |əˈkædəmi|
academic : | ækəˈdɛmɪk |
academician : | əˌkædəˈmɪʃ(ə)n |

agree :  | əˈgriː|
agreement  : |əˈgriːmənt|

Photograph : |ˈfəʊtəgrɑːf|
Photographer : |fəˈtɒgrəfə|
Photographic : | ˌfəʊtəˈgræfɪk |

There are a number of disyllabic words in English in which word accent depends on whether the words are used as noun/adjectives or verbs. The place in which words are used as a nouns, the accent is on the first syllable and if they are used as verb then accent is on second syllable.

For example :

conduct

In most of compound words, the primary accent falls on the first syllable. For example : 'blackboard, 'lifeboat , 'footprint , 'crossword.

However, in the compound words, with the suffixes 'self' and 'ever' , the accent falls on the second word. For example : herself, yourself, however, whenever.

The words with weak prefixes like 'a' , 'be' , 're' the accent falls on the root word. For example ahead, abroad, become, below, remark, replay.

Accent And Rhythm In Connected Speech

I am playing cricket. ( Who is playing cricket ? )
I am playing cricket. (Are you playing cricket ? )
I am playing cricket. ( What are you doing ? )
I am playing cricket. ( What are you playing ? )

By connected speech we mean a utterance made up of several words. In English connected speech, we find accentual features that are similar to the accentual features of polysyllabic words said in isolation. Where one syllable stands out from the rest or it may happen that two syllables standout from the rest, one carrying primary accent and the other carrying secondary accent. In the similar way, in connected speech some words stand out from the rest. For example He 'finished the work. 'Meet me at 'ten. Turn to your 'right. I 'lost my 'bunch of 'keys.

The sentences listed above when they are said neutrally (that is without any special emphasis on any word in relation to the context ), are said in such a way that the words marked with a vertical bar above them stand out from rest. In a connected speech only one word will receive the primary accent. The word which receives the next degree of accent recieves the secondary accent. The secondary accent is marked with the usual stress mark [ ' ] whereas the primary accent is marked with  [ ` ] if the tone is falling and [ , ] when the tone of rising.

For example :

'Meet me at `ten.
'Turn to your `right.
I lost my bunch of `keys.
Have you 'met my `sister ?
Have you 'met my , sister ?

English is set to have a stressed timed-rhythm. This means that in an English utterance, the story or prominent or accented syllables have the tendency to occur at regular intervals for example 'Take the 'dog for a 'walk. 'This is the 'house that 'Tom built. 'She has 'just returned from 'London.

The Consonants :

The 24 Consonants in English ( according to RP ) can be categorised as follows :

1.Six of the English consonants are plosives.
2.Two are affricates.
3.Three are nasal.
4.Nine are fricatives.
5.One is lateral.
6.Three are approximants.

1.Plosives : A plosive sound is articulated with a stricture of complete closure and at sudden release
Consonants : p, b, t, d, k, g.

2.Affricates : Affricates are consonants sounds produced with a stricture of complete closure and slow release.
Consonants : tʃ, ʤ

3. A nasal consonant is articulated with a stricture oral closure and the air escapes through the nostrils.
Consonants : m, n, ŋ

4 : Fricatives are articulated with a stricture of close approximents.  In other words, these sounds are made by the friction of breath in a narrow opening.
Consonants : f, v,ð, θ, s, z,ʃ ,ʒ  h

5 : A lateral consonant is articulated with a stricture of complete closure in the centre of the vocal tract. The sides of the tongue are lowered and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue without any friction.
Consonant : l

6. Approximants : An approximants is articulated with a stricture of open approximation. It is a vowel like in its articulation but is classified as a consonant. They are known as semi-vowels.
Consonants : w, r, j

Plosives

Labial - |p|, |b|
To produce these sounds the upper lip and the lower lip come into firm contact and the closed lips results in oral closure. When the lips are separated suddenly the air escapes.
|p| is a voiceless labial plosive.

Allophonic variants of |p|
|p| is aspirated i.e. released with a strong puff of breath when it occurs initially in stressed syllables ( ). For example pin, please, appoint, appear, paint, pray.
|p| is unaspirated when it occurs in an unaccented syllable and in an accented syllable when the preceding sound is |s| ex : spin, space | unaccented ex Upper tapes

|b| : During the articulation of |b|, the vocal chords vibrate, producing voice |b| is thus voiced labial plosive.

Allophonic variants of |b|

-|b| is exploded through the nose when It is immediately followed by |m|. For example submit, submerge.
-|b| is voiceless when it occurs finally in a word. Ex – mob, rob, club etc.
Alveolar |t|, |d|
During the articulation of |t| and|d| the tip of the tongue makes a firm contact with the alveolar ridge and thus the oral passage of air is blocked completely. When the tip of the tongue is removed suddenly from the teeth ridge, the compressed air escapes.

|t| is a voiceless alveolar plosive.

Allophonic variants of |t|

-|t| is aspirated when it occurs initially in a stressed Syllable. For example : tin, attempt and attain.
-|t| is unaspirated when it occurs in unaccented syllables and in accented syllables preceded by |s|. For example : utter and daughter. Preceding with s – stamp, strain, Street.
-|t| is exploded through the nose if it is followed by |n| - mutton, kitten, button.
-|t| is almost palatal ( post alveolar ) if the following sound is |r| . Example : trip, train, truck.

|d| is a voiced alveolar plosive.

Allophonic variants of |d|
-|d| is exploded through the nose when it is followed by |n|. For example : sudden, hidden, maiden.
-|d| is not audibly released when it is followed by another plosive or affricate. For example : made, build, read.

( followed by another affricate or plosive )
bed-time, bad taste, good cars, bad boy.

-|d| is palatal ( post alveolar ) when the following sound is |r|.  Ex – drip, dry, drain, drink.
Velar : |k|, |g|
While articulating the sounds |k| and |g|, the back of the tongue makes a firm contact with the velum. Thereby effecting an oral closure. When the tongue is suddenly removed by the velum, the compressed air escapes.
|k| is a voiceless velar plosive.

Allophonic Variants
-|k| is aspirated when it occurs initially in a stressed syllable. For example – cap, class, occur.
-|k| is unaspirated when it occurs in an unaccented syllable and when it is preceded by |S| in an accented syllable. Ex – uncle, particle ; scale script, skin.
-|k| is not released audibly when it is word final and when it is followed by another plosive or affricate. Ex – back, block, clock, blocked, blackboard, locked, blackbird.
-|g| is a voiced velar plosive.
Allophonic Variants
-|g| is voiceless when it ends a word. Ex : big, bug, mug.
-|g| is not released audibly when it ends a word and when it is followed by another plosive or affricate. Ex – flag, bag, mug, rugby, bagpipe, bagged.

Affricates
|tʃ| , |ʤ|
During the articulation of |tʃ| and |ʤ| the tongue rises towards the palate. Then it is removed slowly and the air comes out.
tʃ is a voiceless palatal affricate and  ʤ
is a voiced palatal affricate.

No important allophonic variants of  tʃ, and ʤ  . Both the affricates can occur word-initially, word-medially, word-finally.

Nasals
|m|, |n|, |   ŋ|

There are three distinct nasal consonants in English. |m| is a voiced labial nasal. During the articulation of |m|, the upper and the lower lip make a firm contact with each other thereby shutting off the oral passage of air.

Allophonic variants

|m| is labio-dental when it is immediately followed by |f|, |w|
For example : comfort, triumph, circumvent.

|n| is a voiced alveolar nasal. During the articulation of  |n| the oral closure is effected by the tip of the tongue making a firm contact with the alveolar ridge.

|n| is dental when it is followed by | ð | or | θ| For example – tenth, month.

| ŋ | is a voiced velar nasal during its articulation the oral closure is effected by the tongue making a firm contact with the velar and thus the air escapes through the nostrils. There are no important allophonic variance of | ŋ |

Fricatives

Labio-dental fricatives.
|f|, |v|.

During the articulation of |f| and |v| the lower lip is brought near the upper front teeth. There is a narrow gap between them through which the air escapes.

|f| is a voiceless labio-dental fricatives and |v| is a voiced labio-dental fricatives.

No important allophonic variants of |f| and |v| occur.

Dental Fricatives.
,ð, θ, s ,z
During the articulation of |s| and |z| the tip of the tongue is brought near the teeth ridge in such a way that space between them is very narrow and its through this gap that the air escapes.

|S| is a voiceless dental fricative and | z | is a voiced dental fricative. There are no important allophonic variants of | s | and| z |.

| ð| and | θ|

During the articulation of | ð| and | θ| the tip of the tongue makes a light contact with the upper front teeth and the air escapes through the narrow gap.

| θ| is a voiceless dental fricative and | ð| is a voiced dental fricative.

There are no important allophonic variants of | ð| and | θ|.

Palatal Fricatives

|ʃ |,| ʒ|

During the articulation of |ʃ | and | ʒ | the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of Palate, however it doesn't touch the palate and the air escapes through the narrow gap between the tongue and the palate.

| ʃ | is a voiceless palatal Fricatives and | ʒ | is a voiced palatal fricatives.

No important allophonic variants of | ʃ | and | ʒ | occur.

Glottal fricative (h)

During the articulation of (h) the air from the lungs escapes through the narrow gap in glottis with friction.

|h| is a voiceless glottal fricative and no important allophonic variants of |h| occur.

Lateral

A lateral consonant is articulated with a stricture of complete closure in the center of the vocal tract. During the articulation of |l| the tip of the tongue makes a firm contact with the alveoli thereby blocking the oral passage of air. When the tongue is lowered the air escapes.

|l| is a voiced alveolar lateral constant

Allophonic Variants

|l| is dental when it is followed by | θ|.

For example : health, wealth.

|l| occurs initially, medially and finally in words.

Approximates
|r|, |j|, |w|

|r|
During the articulation of r, the tip of the tongue is brought near the rear part of teeth ridge, in such a way that there is sufficient gap for the air to escape freely.

|r| is a voiced palatal approximates.

Allophonic Variants

In RP |r| occurs word initially ( as in run, ring, rib ) and word medially ( as in dry, grow, carry etc ) It does not occur finally in a word ( final r in spelling is always silent in RP ). However in some other varieties of English, the final |r| is also pronounced.

|j|

During the articulation of j, the front of the tongue takes up a position necessary for the articulation of a vowel. The tongue moves immediately to the position of the following sound.

|j| is a voiced palatal approximants.

|w|

During the articulation of |w| the back of the tongue assumes a position required for the articulation of a vowel and the tongue moves immediately to the position of the following sound. The lips are rounded while articulating the sound |w|. |w| is a voiced labial approximant.

There are no important allophonic variants of j and w.

Intonation

When the vocal chords are kept together they vibrate and the vibration of the vocal chords produces a musical note called voice. During normal speech, in the case of an adult make, the vocal chords vibrate between 80 to 120 times a second and between 150 to 200 times a second in the case of an adult female. The rate at which vocal is called the frequency of vibration and this determines the pitch of the voice. The more rapidly the vocal chords vibrate, the higher will be the pitch.

When we hear somebody speak we realise that the person does not speak on the same note. We witness constant variations in the level at which his voice is pitched. That is to say, sometimes it falls. At other times, it remains level, neither too high nor too low. The patterns of variation of the pitch of the voice constitute the intonation of a language.

A syllable at which a pitch change takes place is usually marked with one of the following signs depending upon the type of pitch change :

[ ` ] The pitch falls from very high to very low. ( Highfall )

        The pitch falls from mid to very low. ( Lowfall )

        The pitch rises from very low to very high. ( highrise )

        

         The pitch rises low to mid. ( lowrise )

          

          The pitch falls from about mid to low and then rises again. ( fallrise )

          The pitch rises from low to mid and then falls again. ( risefall )