Sunday, 31 July 2016

GE Short Stories ( Anita Ma'am )

She Had Asked Me ( Usne Kaha Tha ) by Chandradhar Sharma Guleri ( 1883-1922 ), one of the pioneers of the hindi short stories, he introduces the theme of pure love, sacrifice, valour and maintaining the centrality of an Indian experience and identity articulated an ideal patriot in foreign and unfamiliar territory. Dr. Ravi Nandan Sinha's English translation of this classic hindi short story showcases the opulence of hindi literature. He creates a cultural bridge amongst a generation and preserves the cultural effect with the embroyment of colloquial  style and incorporates combinations of Punjabi and Sanskrit dialects.
Lahna Singh, the chief protagonist of ‘She Had Asked Me'' a jamadar in 77 Sikh Rifles of the British Army fighting the Germans in France during world war 1. Every act of his heroism as a soldier is driven largely by the memory of his first love. A young sikh girl, he met as a child in the small town of Amritsar 25 years in the past and his promise to her as an adult just before leaves for battle in an unknown landscape.
The first part captures the hustle and bustle of a typical market in India with its crowd of people and animals. Its narrow circuitous allies and its variety of vendors all to familiar scene. In scene two of the story the narration shifts abruptly and transports the reader across time and place fast forwarding 25 years from India in 1889 to the winter of 1914, when Lahna Singh is anxiously awaiting battle in the trenches of France. His platoon has been on bunker duty for four days, another three to go before they are relieved. One of their fellow soldiers young Bodha Singh is ill and Lahna Singh is taking care of him. He not only gives the soldier his woolens but also does additional guard duty for him. A German soldier disguised lieutenant enters, tricks Subedar Hazar Singh into meeting a bulk of soldiers into an ambush leaving only a skeletal group behind. Lahna is one of those who is left behind sees through a ploy and sends a fellow soldier to alert the Subedar. He employs a simple test of Indian geography and culture which the real lieutenant whom he had known for five years would certainly have been familiar with. He asks the lieutenant to remember the time when they were hunting the antelopes in a particular district knowing full well that there were no antelopes to hunt there. He then recalls how on that trip the lieutenant rode on a donkey and the cook Abdullah stop at the temple to pay his respects to the deities again knowing that a high ranking british officer could never be caught riding a donkey and a muslim cook would not stop to worship at a hindu temple. With this test, Lahna Singh exposes the sky signifying his rational judgement. The imposter is eventually shot by Lahna Singh and German soldiers attack the bunker. He holds on the valiantly till Subedar and his group return. So the Germans annihilated bulk of Indians survive but Lahna Singh the hero is injured.
Lahna Singh is dying and his mind goes to the time when he is about to leave his village for the front. He had gone to meet his Subedar, who is to join him on a trip. The Subedar’s wife turns out to be the same girl who left Lahna Singh broken hearted 25 years ago. Subedar's son Bodha Singh is also a part of same regiment. The wife beseeches Lahna Singh to take care of her husband and her only son in the war on the strength of their childhood love. She pleads and entrust him with this task so great was Lahna's love for the girl and so moved by her request he fulfills with least regard for his own life. He dies in a foreign land where there is no pond of Bulel. Neither Keerat Singh's lap nor the shade of mango tree. Living Vazeera Singh with tears. Lahna Singh ends the story of his life, he rises above greatness sacrificing himself at the altar of love and duty. But he also leaves behind an important question as what would happen to his wife and son. Still we can very well come to a conclusion that while sacrificing himself. He knew very well the value of family and chose to save the only son and the husband of Subedaarni. Such a pure love instills a new life to the belief and confidence in humanity.
This story also reveals the ruthless picture of war and its effects. Indian soldiers as an unfortunate pawn in the game of power hegemony. Those who stake their life on the war front on behalf of the British Empire where to understand later their grims being treated as equals by the british rulers where mere illusions. Wazir's statement that those who die of pneumonia are not given any murabba's reflects the indifference of the government.
Translation of the short story 'Usne Kaha Tha' is quite evocative of the Punjabi countryside and the sensibility of the Punjabi characters. It also showcases the realities of life which forms the bases for Premchand to start his writing career. The historical significance of story cannot be denied. According to many researchers, this story is the first original story in Hindi in originality, artistic, skills, gravity of events, love and sacrifice. The story can claim the first rank.

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Misplaced Courage by Premchand.

Premchand, a master storyteller has been successful in crafting out the human psychology with the help of his words. In ‘Misplaced Courage’ he has put evident effort to depict the modus-operandi of human brain and the external influences which affect the decision making capabilities  of brain.

The story has been written with the ‘khilafat movement’ and ‘noncooperation movement’ in  its background. The story takes us back to the years before independence where people from all parts of life came together to achieve a common dream of ‘swaraj’ or ‘complete independence’. During such movement, people were refrained from drinking liquors, using foreign goods and adopting homemade ( swadeshi ) goods.

The chief protagonist of the play Munshi Maikulal Mukhtar, lives in Naubasta locality of Lucknow. He is portrayed as a very generous, helpful and kind guy. He has been addicted to liquor, charas and ganja. According to him, ‘ganja and charas activated his knowledge, and when he smoked he entered into a state of meditation and experienced a sense of non-attachment to worldly things’. It has been their daily routine to sit and drink at the end of the day. Algu, his servant has the job to bring liquor, charas and ganja for him. 

A day, as usual. Munshi ji, along with his friends ( Rambali, Bechan, Jhinku and Idu ), have been waiting for their regular dose. Unfortunately, Algu returns empty hand. To their disappointment, Algu informs him about swarjists’s blocking everyone from buying liquor despite the presence of policeman there. Furious Munshi ji, gets up and decides to go to buy liquor by himself and asks his friends to accompany him. 

On the way to the liquor shop, they encounter two spiritual men, they were the respectable men of the society. Maulana Jamin, who was quite popular among the town members. Other was Swami Ghanananda, the founder of the Sewa Samiti ( service committee ) and a great well wisher of the people. They were reputed personalities and everyone respected them. 

The sight of two men standing on the way, made Rambali, Bechan, Jhinku and Idu shackle a bit. Maulana Jamin asked Idu, to go for the namaaz, while Swami Ghanananda offered ‘panchamrit’ to Rambali, Bechan, Jhinku and Munshi Ji. Getting embarrassed after their intrusion, they leave Munshi Ji in between. However,  Munshi ji further goes ahead and buys liquor despite the moral resistance, which two religious men offered.


Munshi Ji comes out after taking liquor, only to get humiliated by the public.

While the four friends of Munshi Ji walk together throwing away their bottles. During their walk, they converse with each other. During the conversation, they criticise Munshi Ji’s behaviour and talks how Maulana Jamin and Swami Ghanananda has helped them during various crises. 

They take the vow to never touch the liquor again. 

Once they reach Munshi Ji’s house, Munshi Ji tries to instigate them to have the sip of liquor. They remain undeterred and do not touch the glass. 

They leave altogether.

Munshi Ji put the glass to his lips, but before he could refill , his desire for drinking disappeared. It was the first time in his life that he had to drink alone. First he got irritated at his friends for leaving him in between. He recalls the insult and humiliation meted out to him, after he had bought the liquor from the shop. He recapitulates the entire incident and feels ashamed about it. His conscience compels him to end this weakness of his. At the final scene, he throws away the entire bottle and loud crashing sound was heard. 



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Atonement.

Atonement by Bhagwati Varma. Through the story, Varma had tried to depict various issues in a satirical manner. Beginning from the love and hate relationship for animals, he moved on to the targeting superstitious beliefs. 

It begins with the fight between Ramu’s wife and a cat Kabri. They both share a relationship of hatred. It can be seen in various instances, where Kabri is seen hindering the plans of Ravi’s wife. Kabri would end up eating everything, right from the cream, rabri, kheer to ghee. It would make Ravi’s wife hate her even more. Due to such occasional fiasco, Kabri was getting on her nerves. 

Ravi’s wife tried hard to catch her. She laid the traps for Kabri, with milk, cream, rats and everything dear to a cat’s heart were kept in the trap, but the Kabri did not even look at them.

After getting totally frustrated Ravi’s wife decides to finally finish off the cat. Ravi’s wife had a plan in her mind. A morning, a bowl full of milk was produced before the cat. While Kabri was busy in drinking her milk, Ravi’s wife came with a stick in her hand. And she finally hit the cat cautiously. Kabir neither moved nor made a sound, she just tumbled on its side. All the people, who were present in the house came hearing the sound. 

Ravi’s wife was accused as a sinner. 

The maid, termed it a very serious matter. 

The cook declared that killing a cat is equivalent to murdering a human being.  He refused to work until the Ravi’s wife has been atoned for her sin. He offered to call Pandit Ji, to which mother-in-law agreed. Mother-in-law further said that no one will eat or drink anything until her daughter in law atones for her sin.

The news of killing a cat spread like a fire. Everyone from the neighbours visited the home. She sat in the centre, with questions being thrown at her. 

There enters a prominent character in the story. Pandit Paramsukh is portrayed as a shrewd character, who is greedy, cunning and knows how to exploit the situation to the fullest. When he hears the news, he exactly knew what to do of it. He was four feet ten inches and the girth of his protruding belly was fifty-eight inches.

He starts his procedures, and after a deep phoney research into his scriptures, he claims that to atone the sin, the family need to donate a golden cat of exactly similar weight of the dead cat and apart from that he will be needing ten muns of wheat, one mun rice, one mun lentils, one mun sesame, five muns barley, five muns black gram, twenty sers ghee and also one mun salt. 

These all shocked the family members however were finally convinced.

The story took the dramatic turn when the maid said in faltering voice that cat had got up and run away.


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The Dumb People.

The Dumb People by Rangeya Raghav is story, delicate mix of sentimental feelings, emotionally charged development which altogether generate sympathetic feelings for the deaf and dumb boy.

That deaf and dumb boy who struggles to express his feelings, tries hard to speak, only to fail at last. It generates compassion among the viewers. Someone inquires about his uvula. He explains to them that while cleaning his throat, someone has cut his uvula. And now every time he tries to speak, he sounds like a wounded animal. He knows that he cannot hear anything. After expressing all these facts, he just plainly smiles. He was just outstanding in conveying his thoughts with the help of gestures.  He tells everyone that he has done all kinds of works at various places, like in sweetmeat shop, at someone’s home as servant.

Chameli develops sympathy for her. She is shown as a kind figure. She is compassionate towards underprivileged children, she wept when she saw the children of orphanage.  Deaf and dumb boy, explains to her that how he can do all the domestic works with just expressions. And Chameli offers him to live with him and he asks what he will get in return. They fix the deal at food and four rupees, to which the boy agrees readily.

The entire story showcases the sad melodies which cover the entire story, filled with melancholic vibes. The reader gets closely attached to the characters. The complete structure is a bit similar to the emotional tragedy, of lighter version. The incidents are linear and chained up, and filled with depressing emotions.

The deaf and dumb boy, goes out for a long time. Chameli is angry as well as anxious. Angry at his deeds and anxious for her safety. Her husband comments that he has run away, leaving them. He later returns. Chameli is furious at him and asks him, where he had been. The boy does not reply. She throws rotis at him. He did’t pick it up instantly but later eats it. Once he finishes eating his rotis, she goes to him with kitchen tongs in her hand. She further inquires about where he had been to which he had no reply. She hits him with the tong in his back. Tears fall from the eyes of Chameli and as well as of the boy. 

This had been his regular practice, he runs away from the house from time to time. 

There is one incident which welled up Chameli’s heart. Basanta, who is Chameli’s son had once hit the boy hard and in response to which the boy just cried, without reciprocating with violence. Chameli was in dilemma regarding how to deal with that. How could she punish her own son ? Can he be partial towards her son ? She imagines, how it had been, had his own son deaf and dumb ?

The boy is then accused of stealing valuable things from houses. She shouts at her. She demands answer but the boy just remains silent, failing to interpret her. And suddenly getting very angry, she pushes him out of the door. The boy walked away.

She regrets shouting at her, since he would be unavailable to hear any of it.

Hours later, Shakuntala and Basanta came running, and informs her about dumb boy. She finds her with blood covered all over her face howling like a dog. This scene is metaphorically significant as it depicts the courage of dumb boy who refuses to bow down to the bullies. He fights those boy with adamant courage. 


Later, Chameli is seen admiring dumb people’s voice against the oppression. She finally wonders, that aren’t we all are dumb or act like dumb ? Aren’t we all are dumb in one way or other ? We all are not happy with the society, it’s ways and system yet we choose not to raise our voice and get engaged in the web of illusory, artificial happiness ?

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The Wrestler’s Drum.

Phanishwarth Renu’s begins the story with a intense and sadistic depiction of village which is plagued by numerous shortcomings, such as cholera, malaria. The choice of words can leave the reader spellbound and attracts them to be the part of it. The scene portraying howling of foxes and terrifying hooting of the owl, gives a very depressed view of the village. 

The only positive thing which radiates the positivity in such gloomy atmosphere is wrestler’s drum. The wrestler is Luttan Singh. He is a popular local wrestler of the town. His parents had died when he was only nine. He got married. His widowed mother in law brought him up. Villagers tormented his mother-in-law in various ways . Luttan Singh began exercising and took up the wrestling to avenge those insults.

At the Shyamnagar fair, when he saw wrestler’s fighting. He couldn’t control himself. A dominating wrestler Chand Singh was in the ring, who was famous with his name ‘tiger’s son’. Chand Singh had come from Punjab. His guru was Badal Singh. He had remained undefeated through out all the bouts. 

Raja Sahib of Shyamnagar, who was an ardent fan of wrestling, was discussing whether he should admit Chand Singh to his court or not. Very next moment Luttan Singh challenged the ‘tiger’s son’ in the bout. 


The fight began between both the contestants. Initially, Chand Singh was completely dominating Luttan Singh in the initial phase. Luttan Singh was helpless.

Raja Sahib ordered to stop the match in between. He offered Luttan Singh a ten rupee note, and asked him to enjoy the fair, and go home afterwards.  Luttan Singh pleaded, and begged him to let him fight. Finally, Raja Sahib gave in and the fight resumed. 

Public supported Chand Singh. People were cheering for him. Luttan had no support except the sound of drum. Luttan was in the clutches of Chand Singh. Inspired with the beats of drum, Luttan Singh is finally able to cut his grip and free himself from his clutches. 


Public support poured in for Luttan. Raja Sahib not only hugged him but also made him, his court wrestler. 

The Luttan Singh enjoyed the free run, defeating various eminent writers like Kala Khan. 

The Luttan Singh married and had two children. Both boys were muscular and were inclined towards wrestling. They were declared as future court wrestlers.

The Maharaja died.

The new heir came. He abolished wrestling and brought new sports. Luttan Singh knew that he had now no place in the court. 

The village is again struck with plague. The situation got worse and both of his son, died soon.

He continued playing his drum. Drum was inspiration. It was his teacher.

Next night, he was found dead. Fox had eaten some of his parts.

His body was burnt, with drum lay nearby.

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The Ruffian :

Mohan Rakesh’s The Ruffian is a magical story filled with numerous sentiments, emotional attachments, parting pain, and abhorrence to the physical world. On one hand, it builds the love for nature with the depiction of various components of nature, on the other hand it portrays the cruelty and selfishness of the physical world. At some point of time, it appears that Mohan Rakesh has tried to compare the two distinct poles, one is motherly selfless nature and other is world who finds logic and rationality in everything, with utter selfish motives.

The writer begins with the portraying a beautiful picture of Chaupati beach. Mohan Rakesh writes about the boy, who wanders aimlessly in the beach, he kicks a few coconut, he stumbles upon a beggar getting some swore words from beggar. 

Boy is of thirteen or fourteen years, with dark features, that writers specifically mention that, is not categorised as beautiful.

The writer talks about the darkness that surround the beach. The beach is the place  where he encounters several kinds of people. He met a Parsee family. The male asks him to carry the child to Sheetal Bagh ( name of the place ), and in return he promises to give some money. To which the boy refuses to comply with.  The reason for not agreeing to Parsee, was that he was hooked to a game with a girl of fifteen or sixteen year old, with dupatta wrapped tightly around her waist. The Parsee man called him ‘an arrogant bastard and bloody scoundrel’ for ignoring his repeated pleas. 

The ball throwing game finished. The ball gets thrown towards the sea by the girl, to which the girl exclaims with ‘oh’. To catch the ball, the boy rushed towards the sea. He ran calf-deep into the sea and caught the ball before it was carried away by the receding wave, although it had grown dark. 

The middle aged of the girl’s family compliments him, saying that ‘he has a very sharp eye’. The girl agreed with the man. In response to which the boy just gave out a weak laugh. The woman in the family asked him to carry their things, to which boy agreed.

The writer depicts the plain human psychology, the ‘likeness’ factor, the affection towards few people make us do the things even if don’t want to do it, just for the sake for remaining close to the people whom we tend to like. The boy had unconsciously develops feeling for her, even though he is aware of the fact that she will remain there momentarily. But, hope is a good thing.

The woman asks him to wash plates and spoons, which were six in numbers, i.e. six plates and six spoons. He does that religiously, with utmost care and dedication. While serving the family the plates and spoons, the woman finds out that one of the spoon was missing. The boy is accused of stealing the spoon. The boy defends himself by saying that he has not stolen anything.

The woman asks his husband to check his pocket. The boy refuses to allow them to check his pockets. Going indifferent, the checking begins.  The man finds nothing except a copper amulet, few guavas, and sea shells. 

The copper amulet was given by her mother, who is dead now. 

The emotions which were attached to the amulet has been taken away. 

He is sad. He is lonely. He is again in the beach. He has nothing but the grudge inside him.


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Wednesday, 27 July 2016

Linguistics ( Anita Ma'am )

Linguistics
The word linguistic originates from the Latin word 'lingua', it therefore certainly deals with language. Linguistic is scientific study of language. Its aim is to see a scientific understanding of language and the ways  in which it is organised to fulfill the need it serves and the function it performs in human life. It is not concerned with any particular language but rather is concerned with human language and recognizable part of human behaviour. Thus, the study of an individual language in the grammar of that language while the study of language in general in linguistics. Finegen and Besnier defines linguistics as “the scientific enquiry into human language into its structures and uses and into the relationship between them”
However, when we say linguist studies a language we mean he or she studies the mechanism of the language that is he or she studies the way a language works. Linguistics comprises language in all its form and manifestations. The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages living or dead. It differs from the animal system of communication in various terms such as creativity, interchangeability, cultural transmission, displacement and so on.
Science, as a discipline, is a search for explanation which is its essence, one has to observe the facts closely beside which facts are relevant and which not mere guesses then check those guesses using rigorous logical thinking. A linguist, just like a scientist explains the observed data of natural languages alive or dead by constructing hypothesis, theories and laws and like scientific theories, a linguistic theory has to not only explain the observed data but also predict that which constitute potential though not actual data. A general principle explains what has already been observed and it predicts what has not been observed yet. For example, the English word like farm can be pronounced as |fa:m| with the long vowel will pose a problem for a native speaker of hindi who tend to simplify it |faaram|.
Proto-Indo European has three parts :
1)Germanic
2)Italic
3)Indo-Persian
Germanic includes English, German and Dutch.
Italic includes Latin, French, Spanish and Portuguese.
Indo-Persian includes Indic which has Sanskrit, Hindi and Gujrati.
Indo-Persian includes Persian which has Persian and Pashto.
Ferdinand de Sassure  (1857-1917), a swiss linguist, in his course of general linguistic puts forwards the concept of Langue and Parole. In the words of Sassure, La-langue of language, he calls it :
“The sum of images in the mind of individuals, it is not to be confused with human speech which it is a only a definite part, though certainly a essential one”.
He goes on to say that La-langue is a social product based on conventions. It is a system of real concrete linguistics signs and it is constituted of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Sassure then introduces the idea of Laparole is a set of all utterances that have actually been produced. La-langue on the other hand is the set of all utterances that can be produced. The difference between La-Langue and La-Parole has been described by Stephen Ullman in symantics and introduction to the signs of meaning. These differences can be expressed as columns.
Phonetics
The study of phonetics is concerned with the study and analysis of the generation, transmission and the reception of sound. However in most cases, the study phonetics restricts itself to the study and analysis of the sounds of human speech. Phonetics is generally divided into three branches :
1) Articulatory Phonetics
2) Auditory Phonetics
3) Acoustic Phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics
It is the most important branch of study of phonetics. It is concerned with study and analysis of various aspect of the various aspect of the production of the sounds of human speech. ( Production of sounds from the mouth their description and transcription )
Auditory Phonetics.
This branch of the study of phonetics, is concerned with study and the analysis of the function of hearing. It is thus the study of the reception of the sound by the ear and its processing in the brain. As such, in auditory phonetics the anatomy and the physiology of the human hearing mechanism are studied. Apart from these concepts such as decibel, that defects of hearing the use of audiogram. The concept of depthness and such others are related to the study of auditory phonetics.
Acoustic Phonetics
It is the study of the physical properties of the sound itself. It is thus concerned with the physical analysis of the sound. For an instance, the frequency and the amplitude of sound waves, the various sounds produced by various musical instruments. The tuning of musical instruments, the quality of sound produced by the ____ all related to the study of acoustic phonetics.
A new branch of phonetics called forensic phonetics has also emerged and is quite demanding in modern times. It is concerned with the investigation and detection of crime with the help of the analysis and characteristic properties of forensic finger prints, just as there is linguistic fingerprint of a person in written work, similarly there is phonetic finger print in speech habits of an individual. These are analysed in the study of forensic phonetics.
Physiology Of Speech Production
For the production of speech air stream mechanism is needed. The production of speech in human beings takes place through the aggressive pulmonic air-stream. The passage of this air stream is from the inside of the body to the outside so the air-stream is called aggressive. Since, this air-stream is generated by the action of lungs, thus the air stream is called pulmonic. The air is pushed out of the lungs through the mouth, nose or both.
a) The Respiratory System.
The respiratory system comprises, the lungs, the muscle of chest and the windpipe also called as trachea. The lungs perform the function of breathing or respiration under the actions of muscles of the chest. Under such action when the lungs are compressed. They throw the air out and when they expand, that draw the outside air in. The former process is breathing out exhalation and the latter breathing in or inhalation. In both cases, the air passes through the trachea.
The respiratory system plays a vital role in relation to the production of the speech sound through the process of breathing, the system provides an air stream that acts as a source of energy without an air-stream, no amount of activity on the path of the speech organs can produce a sound.
b) Phonetory Subsystem
The main function of the Phonetory Subsystem is phonation or to produce sound. The main Phonetory Subsystem are the upper end of the trachea, the larynx and the vocal cords. The parts of the Phonetory Subsystems are connected to the upper end of the trachea passes through the larynx, causing the vocal cords to vibrate. The vibration of the vocal cords reduces the sound. The rate of the vibration of the vocal cords is responsible for the pitch of the sound that is produced.
The vocal cords are joined at one end and separate at the other. Thus the space between the vocal cords is called glottis. Another function of the vocal cord is to stop any foreign body from entering into the lungs.
c) The Articulatory Subsystem
The articulatory Subsystem is that which is responsible for the articulation of the various kinds of sound units that are used by human beings for the purpose of oral communication. That is all the consonant, vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs and other kinds of sound units are produced through the coordination of the concerned parts of the articulatory Subsystem. The sounds are produced with a certain degree of precision by all human beings, the anatomy of whose articulatory parts are of normal structure. The important parts of articulatory subsystem are the two sets of teeth, the lips, the tongue and the palate.
Larynx
In the upper part of the trachea is a structure called the larynx. Formed of cartilages and muscle, its primary function is to act as valve, when necessary, it closes off the air from and to the lungs and also prevents food from entering the trachea. Its front is prominent in the neck, and is commonly known as the Adam's apple. Situated inside the larynx, is a pair of lip-like structures called the vocal cords. These are placed horizontally from front to back, joined at the front, but separated at the back. As they are separated at one end, they can assume a large number of positions. Important among these are three positions -
1) Vocal Cords drawn wide apart.
2) Vocal Cords held loosely together.
3) Vocal Cords held tightly together.
Vocal Cords drawn wide apart.
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, there is a wide opening between them, called glottis through this opening, the air can pass freely without setting the vocal cords into vibration. This is normal position of the vocal cords during the process of breathing. The speech sounds produced when the vocal cords are in this position to not have the human sound, they are voiceless sounds. Examples of such sounds are the initial sounds in the English words tan, cot, chair, film, thin, sheet, sin, etc.
Vocal Cords held loosely together.
When the vocal cords are held loosely together, the air from the lungs can escape only by setting them into vibration. Such vibration imparts a humm to the sound produced which are then called voiced sound. Example : all english vowels and the initials consonants in the English words such as dead, get, jug, men, nest etc. All languages have voiced as well as voiceless sound. All vowels are voiced sounds as for consonants. Some are voiced and others are voiceless.
Vocal cords held tightly together.
When the vocal cords are held tightly, held together along their whole length, the glottis is closed, therefore no air can escape through it. This is the position, the vocal cords must take at the time of eating or drinking, so that no food or liquid enters the windpipe. Proceeding from this position when the vocal cords are suddenly drawn apart. An explosive sound called the glottal stop is produced. Such a glottal stop which resembles the sound of a mild cough, may be found to occur infront of a forceful articulation of words as in the initial vowels, act, empty, uncle.
Pharynx
The pharynx extending from the top of the larynx to the hindermost part of the tongue is the pharynx. The shape and size of the pharyngeal cavity can be greatly modified by the contraction and the expansion of the muscles of the pharynx by the moment of the back of the tongue, by the position of the soft palette and by raising or lowering of the larynx, each such modification affecting the quality of the sound produced.
Lips
The lips play an important part in the production of certain speech sound. The initial sounds in the words such as pot and boat for example are made by first closing the lips together and then releasing the closure abruptly. The initial sound in the word ‘men’ is produced by keeping the lips shut and allowing the air to escape through the nose. Many vowels and the initial sound in the words are produced by protruding the lips and sounding them. The lip position therefore is an important factor in the production of speech sounds.
Teeth
Certain consonants are produced with the help of teeth. Such are the initial sounds in the word like- think, that, fan and ban. Beyond the teeth, in the upper jaw, is a whole area called the roof of the mouth, comprising the teeth ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate and the uvula.
a)The teeth ridge: Also called the alveolar ridge, is in the convex part of roof of the mouth lying immediately behind the upper teeth. It can be easily felt by placing the tongue behind the upper teeth. Many consonant sounds are produced at the teeth ridge. By making a complete closure at the teeth ridge, followed by a sudden release of the closure, one can produced ‘/t/’and ‘/d/’ sound in the English words as in ‘ ten’ and ‘day’.
b)The Hard Palate: The line immediately behind the teeth ridge is a hard bony surface, called the hard palate. It is a curved surface leading to the highest point of the roof of the mouth. At the de beginning are small corrugation that facilitate the movement is food. They also provide obstacles to the outgoing air, thus causing a hissing noise, that characterises ex- //,// sounds as in ‘so’ and ‘show’.
c)Soft palate (velum): The soft portion of the roof is called soft palate or velum. It is located at the back, just behind the hard palate and is responsible for the production of a large number of sounds. The position of soft palate is responsible for oral, nasal and nasalized sounds. When the soft palate is raised, no air can escape through the nose, it can escape only through mouth and therefore the sounds produced in this state of soft palate are called oral sounds.
Example- take, play, radio, lecture. When lowered the air can escape through the nose. Here, two possibilities arise, one if there is a closure at some point in the oral passage, the air can escape through the mouth as well as the nose. The sounds produced in the former position are called nasal sounds. For example- Him, Hen. And those produced in the later position are called nasalized sounds(Vowel sounds in brick, breath).
d)Uvula: At the very end of the soft palate is a small fleshy pendent structure known as the uvula. The back of the tongue can articulate with this structure to produce sounds example Come.
Tongue: The tongue is by far the most important single organ of speech. Its importance can be judged from the fact that in many languages the word tongue, means language. It is the most flexible organ of speech, can assume a large no. Of shapes and take many different positions, most of which are significant from the point of view of speech production. To describe these shapes and positions, the tongue can be divided into different parts. When the tongue is in a state of rest, the part of it lying behind the lower lip is called the tip, and that lying against the teeth ridge, the blade, and the part against the hard palate is called the front, and that against the soft palate is called the back. The edges of the tongue are called ridge. Any part of the tongue can be raised to any height or be made to touch the roof of the mouth to bring about numerous articulation.
Active & Passive Articulators
Active articulators are those organs of speech which move from their position of rest to articulate against other organs of speech that donot move. This in the production of | t | , | d | , | n | , | s | sounds. For example, the tip and blade of the tongue move from their position of rest to articulate against the teeth ridge. The tip and the blade of the tongue are therefore the active articulators where as the teeth ridge, the passive articulator again. In the production of |f| sound as in the fan. The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth becomes the passive articulator.
As the lower jaw is movable while the upper jaw is not the active articulators are mostly located in the lower jaw and tha passive articulator in the upper jaw with an exception of soft palate.
The space from the Larynx upwards which extends all the way to the lips is called the vocal tract. It consist of Pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity. The pharynx is the part that extends up from the larynx to the velum. The velum or the soft palate is the value which closes the entrance to the nasal cavity when it is pressed up but opens the cavity when it is allowed to hang down as in the normal breathing. The peer shaped little blob of flesh which can be seen hanging down at the back of our throat or at the extreme end of the roof of the mouth is called Uvula when soft palate is raised the uvula touches the back ball of a Pharynx and the passage into the nose is closed. The air then cannot escape through the nose at all sounds during the production of which the air escapes through the mouth are called oral sounds.
< Diagram >
If the soft palate is lowered, the passage into nose is opened and if the passage into the mouth is blocked. (Either by closing the lips or by making the tongue touch some part of the roof of the mouth ) The air from the lungs will escape only through the nose sounds during the production of which the air escapes only through the nose are called nasal sounds.
< Diagram >
There are certain sounds during the articulation of which the soft palate is lowered this opening the nasal passage of air but the oral passage of air is also not blocked thus both the oral and nasal passage are open. The air from the lungs, therefore escapes simultaneously through the nose and the mouth. Such sounds are called nasalized sounds.
< Diagram >



Phonology :

Phonology is study of how the speech sound of language are used in that language to distinguish meaningful units from each other and how sounds are pattern in a language. According to Bloomfield, Phonology is the organisation of sounds into patterns. In order to fulfil the communicative functions, languages organised their material, the vocal noises into recurrent bits and pieces arranged in sound patterns. It is the study of this formal organisation of languages which is known as Phonology.

Phonology takes two types of approach first is the syntagmatic and second is paradigmatic approach. Saussure said that words become a sentence only when they are linked. At the level of sentence formation, there is syntactic system consisting of word classes such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb.

To quote Saussure

"In the syntag, a term acquires its value because it stands in opposition to everything that precedes or follows it.

According to the same linguist, the paradigmatic relationship has an associative nature words having something in common are associated in memories. For example : the word learning brings to the wind, book, study , knowledge student etc. These words are not related in a linear manner. Thus syntagmatic approach is linear and paradigmatic approach to use Sassure  term vertical.

He says :

“They are a part of inner store house that makes up language of each speaker.”

When we come to analyse the difference of phonetics and phonology, we find that phonetics is the study of speech sounds, how they are produced, transmitted and received. It is a study of all the possible sounds that human apparatus can produce. By contrast phonologyystudies the way speaker speaks the language. 

Systematically use a selections of sands in order to express meaning. It is the study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sound. The primary aim of phonology is to discover the princu=iples that governs the way. Sounds are organised in language. The area of phonetics is wide enough where as in phonology it is confined to certain languages. Phonetic is one and same for all language of the but phonology of one language may differ from phonology of others. Every languages has its own selections of words and of organises them into characteristic patterns. Such selections and organisation of the sound constitute the phonology of the language. R.H. Robin also remembers that phonology is the general, descriptive and classificatory and phonology is particular and function of speech sound in a language or languages. Phonology therefore has been called as functional phonetics. This implies that given a repertoire of all the possible sounds in all the languages of the world, it is a phonology which will help us decides which sounds out of all possible sounds belong to which language, if there are for example fifty times of constant sounds which human being can produce. The phonology of English help us in selecting 24  consonants out of the 50 consonants which human being can produce. 

It is a phonology of a language which also tell us which sounds are phonemes which are allophones. Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units of sound. By minimal we mean that they cannot be further subdivided chunks by distinctive it implies that each phonemes is distinct from the other for example a word like cap …. this word consist of three sounds…., when we say that each of them is a distinctive unit what we imply is that if we substitute the sound… by the sound… in the word cat then the meaning of the word change, it would become a different tap.

 Similarly if we substitute the middle sound with … then once again meaning will change. Cap will become cup. Again if we substitute the final sound… with … the meaning will change and will become a new word thus each sound is distinctive in nature because substitution of one sound with the other sound will bring about the change in the meaning. The word distinctive has a synonyms in phonology, it is also known as contrastive that is when we substitute one sound by another and the substitution brings about the change in the meaning. We can say that the two sounds are distinctive or contrastive in nature.

A phoneme is therefore defined as a minimal distinctive unit of language. The meaning in the aforesaid example changes only because they belong to one language, English. It is only in English that the meaning of cap and tap , cap and cup, cap and cat are different. Thus each language has a selection of consonant and vowel sounds which may be different from the selection of vowels and consonants found in other language. 

All languages have a set of phonemes and phonology as a discipline studies the selection and organisation of sounds in a given language.

However while analysing language is also found that sometimes in a given language some sounds are minimal but not distinctive. This implies that sometimes there are sounds which do not bring about the change in the meaning not distinctive ; such sounds are called allophones. It is one of the member of variants of phoneme. For example, native speakers of English pronounce words like come, take, past as …………. i.e. soon after the production of the first sounds of these words as they produce the sound which is similar to the sound ‘h’ before they move on to produce the vowel sound, the production of sound ‘h’ is called aspirations. In English these three sounds are aspirated. And they are aspirated only when they occur initially in a stressed syllable for example Potato the sound |p| and |t| in the initial position of a syllable, the rule for aspiration applies to the initial sound of a stressed syllable and not the initial position of a word, but only the sound |t| in second syllable is aspirational because only this sound meets both the requirements needed for aspiration in English. Another important point regarding allophones is all the allophonic variants of a phoneme belong to the same phoneme that is ….are allophones of phoneme……and |p| is voiceless by labial, plosives and so is p, h, t is voiceless alveolar plosives and so is…and k is voiceless velar plosives and so is …thus ….have phonetic similarity with……
and allophones may either be in a complimentary variation or in a free variation. As complimentary variation is determined by its environment ( that part of the mouth from which it is produced ). For example the ‘l’ sound in light is not the same as in table. In the first word light, it is a clear ‘l’ sound and in the second word we have a dark ‘l’ sound. These two variants of sound ‘l’ is called as complimentary allophones. They are so because where the light ‘l’ sound appears, the dark ‘l’ cannot appear. In RP the sound |r| is an example of allophones in free variation. It is called so because it cannot be pronounced in a number of ways for example the sound are in red, protect and terrible.

Godaan ( Minz ma'am )

Godaan

Godaan is a hindi novel by Munshi Premchand translated into English as ‘The Gift Of A Cow’. It was first published in 1936 and is considered as greatest hindustani novels of modern Indian literature. Heed around the socio-economic deprivation as well as the exploitation of the poor villager, the novel was the last complete novel of Premchand. It was published in 1957 by Jai Ratan and P. Lal translation in 1968 by Gordon C Roadarmel. The story revolves around many characters representing the various sections of Indian community. The peasant and the rural society is represented by the family of Hori Mahato and his family members which includes Dhania, who is the wife, Rupa and Sona who are the daughters, Gobar, son of Hori, Jhumia, daughter in the law of Hori.

The story starts from a point where Hori has a deep desire of having a cow as other millions of poor peasants. He purchased on debt of ₹80, a cow from Bhola, a cowherd Hori tried to cheat his brothers for ₹10. This in turn led to a fight between his wife and his younger brother Heera's wife. Jealous of Hori, his younger brother Heera poisoned the cow and ran away because of the fear of police action. When the police came enquiring the death of the cow. Hori took a loan and paid the bribe to the police and was able to clear of his younger brother’s name. Jhumia, the daughter of Bhola, was a widow and eloped with Gobar after got pregnant by him. Because of the fear of action from villagers Gobar also ran away to the town. Hori and Dhania were unable to throw a girl carrying their son's child from their door step and gave her protection and accepted her as their daughter in law. The village panchayat finds Hori as his wife tackles the personal attack of the pandit on them for sheltering Jhumia. Hori again is compelled to take a loan and pay the penalty. Hori is in huge debt from local money lenders and eventually married off his daughter Rupa for mere ₹200 to save his ancestral land from being auctioned. But his determination to pay those ₹200 and to have a cow to provide milk to his grandson leads to Hori's death because of excessive work. When he is about to die, his wife Dhania took out all the money she had (₹1.25) and made Hori pay the priest on behalf of Godaan (cow donation). This eventually fulfills the traditional dream of Hori but his desire to pay back ₹200 to his son-in-law and to have a cow to feed the milk to his grandson remained unfulfilled. Hori is shown as a typical poor peasant who is the victim of circumstances and possesses all the deficiencies of common man but despite all this he stands by his honesty duties and judgement when time requires.

Problems due to caste segregation.

People of different vocation and their respective caste represent the village. Datadin the Brahmin priest represents the uppermost caste, he exploits the lower class villager with his various religious sanctions Hori (peasant), Bhola (cowherd), Selia (a cobbler’s daughter) represent the various hierarchies of lower castes in the caste system that existed in India.

Exploitation of the lower caste.

Premchand has drawn a realistic picture of the poor peasants exploited by the village Zamindars and the greedy money-lenders. The Zamindars collected the revenue and imposed fine. Here Rai Saheb fine Hori for the death of the cow though he didn’t kill it. The peasants are unable to pay the debts in time and it gets multiplied with the passage of time. The author is advocating the need of the feudal system that existed in the country.

Exploitation of women

The women characters Dhania, Jhunia, Se liya and Roopa are exploited by the men they love and they are dedicated to.

Interpersonal relationship (love and marriage)

Premchand as a progressive writer envisages a modern India where love and intercaste marriage would thrive. We have the intercaste marriages of Gobar and Jhunia and Nata and Seliya and that of the educated pair, Rudrapratap and Sarg. The marital relationship of Mr. Khanna and his wife is strained as he lacks love and respect for her. Mr. Mehta and Miss Malathi have serious thought provoking discussions on the issues of love, the institutions of marriage, the relation of man and women and womenhood. They represent the voice of modern India and mutually decide to live as free friends serving society in their respective capacities.

________________________

The gift of a cow revolves around Hori Ram who lives with his family in the small village Belari. Hori is a poor farmer, a decent soul but like all other villagers, is deeply indebted. Hori believes in the order of the day which also means putting the welfare of the local Zamindar Rai Saheb Amarpal Singh ahead of that of his family. The title of the novel 'Godaan' refers to 'the gift of a cow' by a pious hindu Brhaman at the time of death. But while Hori longs for a cow to call his own, it is not that easy. The hope that will have one to give at his death, creates a sense of pathos. Getting a cow is something Hori does dream of :

" it was his life's ambition, his greatest dream, since any ideas of living of bank interest, of buying land or of building a mansion where two grandiose for his cramped mind to comprehend"

Among the consequences of his having accepted the cow, from a herdsman Bhola is that Hori's son Gobar falls head over heels in love with Bhola's daughter and begins an affair with her. When she gets pregnant, Gobar brings her to his family's home. He sends her ahead and he himself moves to town in order to make good money.

The proper thing for Hori and his wife to do is, not to allow Jhumia to their house, but they are decent folk ( which in that society means they are weak ). And they do the right thing and take the poor peasant girl in. This cast all in dishonour and the whole village is outraged.

Caste is one of the central features of the society. The villagers are largely of same caste and this makes them a sort of extended family. Caste however brings obligations with it. Bringing someone like Jhumia who has dishonored her family by her actions into the hope of Hori is a major no . Hori is only fined by this act.

The village is a place of odd contrast. On one hand everyone tries to turn things to their own advantage and on the other, there is a surprising generosity of spirit and a willingness to help those who are down on their luck.

The major problem of the village is that everyone is deep in debt and that debt keep growing. Premchand denotes considerable space to money lending practices since it was central to the lives of the villagers ( the unavailability of ready credit at reasonable terms ) is convincingly as one of the main reasons for the miserable life of the villagers.

The money problem is also faced by the rich and urban class that includes the Zamindars, lawyers, professors, industrialists and other business men. Rai Saheb laments "Our parasitic existence has crippled us... sometimes...sometimes I think the government would do us a big favour by confiscating lands and making us work for a living. " We have fallen prey to the system, a system that's completely destroying us. Godan can also viewed as political novel. Though Premchand generally concentrates on recounting the village people, the contrast between village and city life is well handled. Gobar is the main character who bridges the two worlds, first he does well in town but then returns to the right thing in his village. Premchand offers a good picture Indian society of this time. He focusses more on the simplistic way of life to quote

" if there weren't injustice in the world, why should people call it hell ".

The novel offers a rich picture of humanity and is a good presentation on social criticism.

Tuesday, 26 July 2016

Pride and Prejudice ( Minz ma'am )

Pride and Prejudice
Characters :
Mr. Bennet
Mrs. Bennet
Jane
Elizabeth
Mary
Catherine
Lydia
Historical background.
The original version of Pride and Prejudice came under the name, ‘First Impressions’ which was completed in 1797. The work was rewritten and was renamed, Pride and Prejudice in the year 1813. It became the representative of mature Jane Austen. A few critical comments made during that time focused on the skill of Austen at creating character. In 1870 the most significant 19th century critical article on Austen was published by Richard Simpson. In the article Simpson discussed the complexity of Austen’s work including her use of irony. Various critics have noted that the plot development of Pride and Prejudice is determined by character where coincidence exerts a major influence but turns off action are precipitated by character. Although human weakness is a prominent element ranging from Caroline Bingley's jealous to Elizabeth's blind prejudices outright evil is little in evidence. Austen maintains an attitude of good humoured irony towards her character. During Austen's career romanticism reached its zenith of acceptance and influence, but she rejects the tenets of that movement. The romantics extols the power of feeling whereas Austen upheld there supremacy of rational faculty. Romanticism advocated abandonment of restrain, Austen was a  staunch exponent of neoclassical belief in order and discipline.
The romantics emphasized on feelings.
The romantics believed in no restrain / control. Austen believed in order and discipline.
The romantic saw in nature a transcendental power to stimulate control to the better existing order of things which they saw as essentially tragic in its existing state. Austen supported traditional values and supported traditional values and the established norms and viewed the human condition in the comic spirit.
The romantics believed in transcendental power of nature and expressed it tragically.
Austen believed in traditional values and established norms and expressed it comically.
The Romantics celebrated the natural beauty but the Austen’s dramatic technique is sparse of description of natural surroundings.
Austen's Modus operandi :
1.Not a romantic/ used realism.
2.Used humour.
3.Used irony to comment on various situation.
Characters :
Elizabeth Bennet :
An intelligent and spirited young women, who possess a keen wit and enjoys studying people's characters. Although, she initially dislikes Darcy circumstances cause her to re assess her negative impression of him and she eventually falls in love with him.
Fitzwilliam Darcy.
A wealthy proud man falls in love with Elizabeth but reveals a generous thoughtful nature beneath his somewhat stiff demeanor.
Mr. Bennet.
He is Elizabeth’s ironic and a pathetic father.
Mrs. Bennet.
She is foolish unrestrained mother of Elizabeth obsessed with finding husbands for her daughters.
Jane Bennet.
She is eldest gently kind hearted women Elizabeth's confidant. She falls in love with Bingley but conscious about revealing his feeling.
Mary Bennet.
Third daughter. She prefers reading over socializing.
Katherine (Kitty) Bennet.
Fourth daughter, she joins his sister Lydia in flirting with soldiers.
Lydia Bennet.
Immature and irresponsible youngest daughter. She runs away with Wickham.
Charles Bingley.
Good natured wealthy man.
Caroline Bingley.
Sister is Charles Bingley.
George Wickham.
Irresponsible soldier.
Lady Catherine Borough.
She is the arrogant aunt of Darcy.
Synopsis of ‘Pride and Prejudice’.
In the neighbourhood of Bennet family’s in state of Longbourn. Mr. Bingley, an attractive young bachelor with a good income has moved into the nearby manor. He falls in the love with the oldest of the five Bennet’s daughter, Jane. But his friend wealthy and aristocratic disapproves of Bingley's choice. Darcy considers the Bennet family to be socially inferior and he plots with the Bingley's sister to separate the lovers. Meanwhile, though Darcy is finding it hard to resist his own increasing attraction to Jane's younger sister, the vivacious Elizabeth. Because Mr. Bennet had no son, his state will be inherited by his nearest male relative, Mr. Collins. This pompous clergyman comes to Longbourn seeking a wife, he proposes to Elizabeth who rejects him but he winks her best friend Charlotte Lucas, a plain young women who marries Collins who escapes from Spinsterhood into a safe and secure marriage though it was loveless. The story continues with an interweaving of plots and subplots during her travels with the Gardiners. Elizabeth receives bad news from the Longbourn. The youngest Bennet girl sixteen year old Lydia has run away with Wickham. Such a scandal must disgrace the whole family and Elizabeth decides that just as a feelings towards Darcy have begun to change, any hope of renewing his proposal is lost forever. Darcy feels partially responsible for Lydia's elopement, he feels he should have warned the Bennets that Wickham once tried the same thing with Darcy’s own sister. Besides he is very much in love with Elizabeth. For her sake, he searches out the fugitive couple, makes sure that they are legally married, pays Wickhams debts and buys him a commission in the army. All this he does secretly. But though sworn to secrecy Lydia reveals Darcy's part in her rescue and Elizabeth realises at last how wrong she has been. Bingley with Darcy's encouragement proposes to Jane and is accepted. Soon Darcy makes his proposal again to Elizabeth. By now, she has been abandoned her prejudices and has subdued her pride and so they are married and all ends happily.
Themes
Pride and Prejudice contains one of the most cherished love story in English literature symbolised between Darcy and Elizabeth. As in any good love story, the lovers must elude and overcome numerous stumbling blocks, beginning with the tensions caused by the lovers caused own personal qualities. Elizabeth’s pride makes her misjudge Darcy on the basis of her first impression while Darcy's prejudice against Elizabeth’s to a poor social status blinds him to her many virtues. Darcy's and Elizabeth's realisation of a mutual tender love seems to implied at Austen views love as something independent of the social forces. She viewed love as something that can be captured only when an individual is able to escape the warping effects of hierarchical society. Austen sounds more of a realist when she uses the character of Charlott Lucas who marries the buffoon Mr. Collins for his money and demonstrates that heart does not always dictate marriage. Yet with her central characters Austen suggests that true love is a force separate from society and one that can conquer even the most difficult of circumstances.
Pride
In chapter 5 of the text, Mary Bennet, rightly says human nature is particularly prone to pride. Throughout the novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’ pride prevents the characters from seeing the truth of a situation. Most notably, it is one of the two primary barrier in the way of a union between Elizabeth and Darcy. Darcy's pride in his social position leads him to scorn anyone outside his own social circle. Meanwhile Elizabeth’s pride in her power of discernment cloud her judgement. These two find happiness by helping each other overcome their pride outside of Elizabeth and Darcy, Jane Austen seems pessimistic about the human ability to conquer this character flaw. The secondary characters like Mrs. Bennet, Lady Catherine, Mr. Collins and Caroline Bingley remained deluded by personal pride throughout the novel.
Prejudice
Critic A Walton Litz comments “ In ‘Pride and Prejudice’, one cannot equate Darcy with Pride or Elizabeth with Prejudice. Darcy’s pride of place is founded in social prejudice while Elizabeth's initial prejudice against him is rooted in pride of her own quick perception. Both the characters’ ego drives them towards personal prejudice. Darcy has been taught to scorn anyone outside his own social circle and must overcome his prejudice in order to endure himself to Elizabeth. Similarly Elizabeth’s excessive pride in her discernment leads her to distanced from Darcy.
Depiction of women
Jane Austen is very critical of gender injustices present in 19th century. English society particularly as perpetrated by the institution of marriage. Financial security was one of the prime concerns irrespective of the age, personal quality and eligibility in a person. However in her portrayal of Elizabeth, Austen shows that women are just as intelligent and capable as their male counterparts. In the novel Elizabeth's happy ending reveals Austen's belief that women has the right to remain independent until she meets the right man.
The first sentence of the book establishes the major theme of Pride and Prejudice's Austen states “it is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be want of a wife”.
This sentence introduces the theme of marriage and also introduces the tone of irony. In its basic sense irony is the use of words to express something other than, or opposite of the literal meaning. The first sentence literally means “everyone knows that a single rich man is looking for a wife.” However, relating it ironically, the sentence means :
“Everyone knows that a single rich man will be pursuit by women who want to be his wife.”
Similarly, Austen also places her characters in situations that seem to signify one thing and are later revealed to signify something else.
Irony is employed in Pride and Prejudice as the lens through which society and human nature are viewed. Through the novel, Austen studies social relationship in the limited society of a country. (Analyse character of Mr. And Mrs. Bennet, refer to the dialogues quite contrast and sarcastic ).
This gossipy small town environment is a microcosm of society at large. In discussing Darcy's proud nature Charlotte Lucas says, “his pride does not offend me so much as pride often does, because there is an excuse for it. One cannot wonder that so very fine a young man, with family, fortune, everything in his favour should think highly of himself. If I may so express it. He has a right to be proud.”
Charlott's assessment of Darcy’s pride represent a perspective on wealth and privilege that was common in 19th century Britain.
The discussion between Elizabeth and Jane help us to peep into their characters. Jane is depicted as a young woman with a kind and generous heart and who is always willing to see the best in people. More spirited than her sister, Elizabeth is a sharp observer of human nature who doesn't hesitate to make judgement. She criticizes Jane for being blind to people’s flaw, and accusation which will ironic later in the novel when Elizabeth discovers her own blindness regarding appearances and prejudices.
Two features that distinguish Elizabeth from other women throughout the novel are her quick wit and her energy. In these chapters we see her display these qualities. Elizabeth exhibits a vigor and intelligence that appeals to all.
Elizabeth's wit is evident in her dialogue whether she is debating with Charlotte, the reasons for marriage or discussing with Darcy. The existence of accomplished women. We get a sense of her energy as she delivers opinions and retorts with precision and speed. Elizabeth enjoys physical activity especially walking as she walks three miles Longbourns to Netherfield to see her sister. Interestingly, the characteristics that set Elizabeth apart from other women in the novel are the very qualities that appeal to Darcy. He first notices that her face is 'rendered uncommonly intelligent by the beautiful expressions of her dark eyes'. As he listens to her conversation, Darcy is intrigued by her ability to express herself and tells her that she speaks 'with great energy'. Darcy is also drawn to Elizabeth's 'light and pleasing' and the 'easy playfulness of her manners when she walks to Netherfields. Darcy feels admiration of the brilliancy which exercise has given her complexion'. Elizabeth's appeal for Darcy becomes even more apparent in the scene in which Darcy, Miss Bingley and Elizabeth discuss the requirement of an accomplished women. In this scene however Austen gives a direct contrast between Miss Bingley and Elizabeth. While Miss Bingley agrees with everything that Darcy's says, Elizabeth counters her statement with her opposing opinion. Miss Bingley's behaviors towards Darcy makes the reader recall, the first sentence of novel.
"It is the truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife". Austen has shown how desperately the mothers of Hurtfordshire county have thrown their daughters at Bingley and made clear that Darcy is much wealthier than Bingley. The only thing saving him from match making is his reserved proud demeanor dues not put off Caroline Bingley and few other aristocratic women. Consequently for Darcy, Elizabeth forth rightness and apparent dislike of him are probably refreshing qualities in a women.
A little knowledge of 19th century society helps modern readers to understand some of ironic social commentary in this section. Miss Bingley and Mrs. Hurtz take great delight in ridiculing Jane and Elizabeth's relative who pseudo gentry.
Members of the land owning gentry such as Darcy or the soon to be land owning gentry such as Charles Bingley would consider those who earn their money trade to be socially inferior. Elizabeth's father is among the landlord gentry but her mother comes from a trade family consequently Jane's and Elizabeth's standing in the eyes of elitist like the Bingley sisters is diminished due to their mother's family connections.
Chapter 10-14
The arrival of Mr. Collins brings the issue of entail to the forefront and helps to readers to understand Mr. Bennet's obsession in getting her daughters married. Because Mr. Bennet has no male heir, upon his estate will go to Mr. Collins. Because Mr. Bennet has mismanaged his money, his wife and his daughters will be nearly destitude unless the Bennet girls marry. Austen remarkable develops the character of Darcy and Mr. Collins. The personalities of both men are revealed through acts like letter writing, speaking, reading. Darcy's writing style is different. He writes 'rather slowly and his letters are generally long'. These characteristics help us to understand Darcy that he likes to think about things and is cautious when making choices or decision. That is why he chooses the right word to write. By writing a long carefully worded letter to his sister Georgiana Darcy, Darcy exhibits that he cares for his sister and takes his responsibility for her seriously. This contradicts Elizabeth's perception of Darcy as cold and unfeeling.
Character of Mr. Collins
Meanwhile while Mr. Collins also writes a letter that introduces himself to all. Mr. Collins is a curious blend of arrogance and obsequiousness.
Just as their style of writing reflects different aspects of Darcy and Mr. Collins character.  So does their style of speaking. Darcy is slow to speak and speaks judiciously. Mr. Collins' speaking style is quite frivolous. Mr. Collins communicates in long convulated sentences that range from unending apologies to severe moralising.
Darcy usually requires someone to drawn him into a conversation whereas Collins needs no such invitation. Darcy's extensive library in Dimberly indicates that he enjoys books and reading. He enjoys a solitary activity of living one's social activity of cards. Collins on the other hand has no exposure to books rather than selecting something that everyone will enjoy. Mr. Collins chooses a book of sermons and reads them with very monotonous solemnity.
Chapter 15 to 18
With the introduction of Wickham the plot begins to be more complicated. The perceptive abilities of Elizabeth for Darcy and Wickham are blinded by her prejudice and she is unable to see the true nature of Darcy and Wickham. Elizabeth's prejudice stems from her first impressions of the men whereas she was repulsed by Darcy's arrogant and reserved manners surprisingly she is attracted to Wickham's happy readiness of conversation. Wickham has behaved opposite to Darcy in his first encounters with Elizabeth, appealing to her appreciation of friendly manners as well as to her pride in being the women he choose to sit with.
Consequently Elizabeth's prejudice is so strong against Darcy and against Darcy and for Wickham that she accepts a face value of things. As Wickham talks about Darcy's pride Elizabeth fails to note her own pride that lines her. Austen emphasizes a theme of prejudice as Wickham imposes his prejudice upon Elizabeth and makes her even more prejudiced against Darcy, who it is hinted is prejudiced against all people.
Note :
These chapters give us examples of the importance of manners and decorum in 19th century British Society. In this society manners are associated with social class and accordingly a person's character. For example : members of the aristocracy or lady Catherine De Borough are percieved as proud in their manners because of the high status. Where as the Bennet's sisters are found not appropriate because of their class. Austen satirizes the manners of all classes and exposes people and their nature. For example Austen uses Mr. Collins as an extreme example to show how excessive pride can affect one's manners.
Chapter 19 to 23
Mr. Collins' proposal to Elizabeth is one of the most humorous moment of the novel. Austen has already established the absurdity in Mr. Collins speech and manners but his proposal raises him to new heights of pompous foolishness though the proposal, one can only observe the self-pride and condescension. For Mr. Collins marriage is a business transaction where as Elizabeth wants to marry for love not for convenience. Elizabeth's romantic view of marriage faces a shock when Charlotte decides to marry Mr. Collins. In seeking a love match, Elizabeth is searching for a relationship opposite to that of a parents. Het parents neither loved nor like each other which creates a fragmented household in which neither parent seems happy. Perhaps Elizabeth's objections to Charlotte's realistic perception of marriage are actually objections to her own parent's relationship. Most young women in her situation 19th century Britian might dream of marrying for security as Charlotte does.
Consequently for the Austen's readers, Elizabeth represents an ideal view of the world while Charlotte represents reality.
" She is tolerable ; but not handsome enough to tempt but I am in no humour at present to give consequence to young ladies who are slighted by other men "
Comment on the statement with reference to Pride and Prejudice ?
Pride and Prejudice are one some of most important themes stated in the novel. Pride and Prejudice both stands in a way of relationship as embodied in the personality of Darcy and Elizabeth respectively. The characters were written to be perfect opposites because in the end both have to give up their own prejudices that prevent them from seeing how perfect they are for each other. The plot revolves around the undermining of their mutual prejudices and how each of forced to reassess their conditioning.
Darcy is forced by his besotted emotions and urges to modify his horror of Elizabeth's family and the lower status. However Darcy is mesmerized by her eyes and her carefree nature and clear sightedness. For Elizabeth the possibility of being mistress of . She begins her journey to overcome her objections. Pride narrows the vision of a person and leads to undermine the qualities of other person. Prejudice blinds the vision and leads to false perception about others. Darcy's pride and Elizabeth's prejudice come in a way of understanding each other and keep them apart. Only when Darcy becomes more humble and Elizabeth becomes more accepting can they relate to one another and find happiness together.


An understanding of Jane Austen's novels

- John Odmark.

The basis of Jane Austen's irony is usually shown to be the conflicting systems of norms and values in the world portrayed, the contrast between the author's values and those in the little country village of her setting or a combination of these possibilities. Pride and Prejudice has always been Jane Austen's most widely read novel. It differs from ' Northanger Abbey ' and ' Sense and Sensibilities '. In the increasing skill the author demonstrates in handling her narrative. And lacks the psychological depths and moral seriousness of the novels that were to follow.

Structural Irony.

More of the characters is left untouched by the irony that infuses the novel. The plot structure is obviously ironic particularly the development of the relationship between Elizabeth and Darcy. When Darcy is ready to marry Elizabeth, she is not interested, when she thinks better of it, she appears to have lost interest Mrs. Bennet's ambition expressed in the opening scene to marry off her daughters well is ironically fulfilled, far as Elizabeth and Jane are concerned.

In Pride and Prejudice, irony is also used to delineate character. There are two related systems of values by which characters are judged : Social conventions and moral values. Beginning with chapter 10, much of the story is related from Elizabeth's perspective. But she is just as capable of erring as are the other characters in novel. However there is one kind of error she does not make Elizabeth never fails to distinguish and an ethical mistake. This moral blindness on the part of some individuals is brought out for example in the scene where Elizabeth decides to visit the sisters who has fallen ill, those who take cognisance of Elizabeth action are quite appalled. By her disregard of what is considered proper social conduct. To sight a second example, Wickham's force marriage to Lydia may satisfy social convention and overjoy Mrs. Bennet but the moral issue is not easily done away with.

In rendering character, Jane Austen often uses manners to mirror morals. The portrayal of Mr. Collins is an exception. His obsequiousness is unmistakeable and it reflects his total lack of a sense of what is correct and proper. But the portrayal of the other characters is less obvious.

For example : Wickham deceives Elizabeth with his ability to assume good manners and art of integrity. Here her air of judgement points up the fundamental problem with which she and the reader are confronted. The accurate evaluation of an individuals manners are a means of discovering his moral character. In fact much of the irony in this novel derives from the mistaken judgements made in evaluating the significance of an individual's conduct. And more generally it derives from the characters frequent inability to communicate effectively with one another. (give example. Elizabeth and Darcy interacts )

The action in fact turns on the misunderstanding than exist not only for the characters involved but also for the reader as well. For the reader the ironic implications become clear in retrospect. The main reason for this is reader's closeness to Elizabeth, most of the story is presented with her angle of vision. This encourages the tendency to accept her judgements uncritically. A second reason is a fact that although much of the story is related from Elizabeth's perspective, her own mental life is kept at distance from the reader. Even Darcy is seen for the most part from Elizabeth's point of view. For the first time in Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen succeeds in coordinating the local and structural ironies : the ironies governing the organisation of the plot derived from the ironies developed in the rendering of individual scenes and characters.