Seema Minz Ma'am's notes.

Catharsis 

Aristotle defined tragedy as :

“The imitation of an action that is serious and also as having magnitude, complete in itself.”

In the medium of poetic language and in the manner of dramatic rather than of narrative, presentation, involving “incidents arousing pity and fear”  where with to accomplish the catharsis of such emotions. The meaning of Aristotle’s ‘Catharsis’  may be interpreted as purgation or cleaning of emotions. Aristotle believed that when a person watched/read tragedy, tragedy has a purgatory effect on him. Purgation takes place when the reader sympathises with the protagonist and by doing so he cleanses himself by rising above his self interest.

Aristotle’s theory of catharsis may be considered to be his reply to Plato’s charge against tragedy that is devitalises our emotions. The twin emotions of pity and fear are dangerous and unhealthy. According to Dante, pity and fear constitute the two fold audience reaction reaction to the site of tragic suffering. Pity is aroused by the magnitude of the suffering undergone by the protagonist and fear by the knowledge that what extent will the tragic suffering befall on the protagonist. This is the awareness that is brought hope to us when we witness a tragedy. Pity and fear describe a process of mutual and imaginative identification with the agent. When we come out of this involvement we find ourselves in worldly transformed and feel a sense of release and serenity  ( calmness ).

Classicism.

The Greek Masters.

Socrates - Oedipus Rex.

Plato - Republic.

Aristotle - ‘Poetics’.

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Romans

Horace.

Longinus.

Virgil.

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The Renaissance.

Sir Philip Sidney.

Elizabeth Age.

University Wits.

Shakespeare.

Marlowe.

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The Restoration.

John Dryden.

Neo Classical Age.

Dr. Samuel Johnson.

Classicism.

Classicism can be summarised as an aesthetic quality that imitates the ancient writers for its guide and inspiration. Usually the Greek and Roman masters were referred as models. Classicism in English literature was revived during the renaissance. The writers of the renaissance period once again started reading and learning about the classical masters and started initiating them. It was Ben Jonson who established order and discipline in English writing. During the renaissance period there was a duel trend that was followed in criticism. On one hand English criticism of this time adored the classics of as a model and guide and on the other it advocated purity of the native tongue. Away from the foreign influences ( Latin-French Italian ).

Classical and Romantic.

There were two opposed stand points from which the world looked at criticism. The classical and the romantic or the Dogmatic and impressionistic. The classical standpoint also called dogmatic emphasised on uniform standards laid and in particular emphasised on the judicial function of criticism. It was regulated by the rules or ancient classics as codified by Aristotle and his followers. It advocated right judgements as a step towards right enjoyment classical criticism dominated European thought in 16th, 17th and 18th century when Aristotle poetics was acknowledged as the master key to the treasures of literature.

Scalinger, the famous critic of 16th century said “Aristotle is our emperor”, “The perpetual dictator of all the fine arts”. Alexander Pope in his 'Essay On Criticism' 1688 called on English writer to take their standards from the most ancient models. 


"Be Homer’s works your study end delight.

Read them by day, and mediate by night.
Thence form your judgements, thence your maxim’s bring. And trace the muses upwards to their spring."

Characteristics of Neo-classicism.

1. Respect for rules - Rule and discipline were accepted and practiced with enthusiasm in the 18th century. Classical conventions govern not every variety of verse - drama, epic, satire, ode and others. Perfect form was the ideal and the substance or the subject was of minor importance.
2. Intellectual Quality - The neo-classical were governed by a spirit of reason and good sense. They spoke of what was correct. Their writing was bred more in the head than in the heart, rather it was addressed to the intellect and not to the feeling. The neoclassic delighted themselves in wit therefore they deliberately wrote memorable phrases that was philosophical and critical.
3. Insistence on a set poetic style. The preoccupation with form encourages an artificial style. Everyday turns of speech was unacceptable and the language turned out to be standardised. Heroic couplet was the best medium that was exploited.
4. Was based on town life / City based. About 3000 coffee house developed in London in the 18th century. They served to establish contact between authors and readers. Neo-classicism focussed more on city life rather than nature and countryside. Satire came to be practiced more as London life and current fashions offered it unlimited scope.

The Romantic Revival

For over a century, classical conventions were applied to English poetry with striking success. They established the rule of law in literature, by which writers were taught “to think naturally and express forcibly.” A literary technique was evolved which in the words of Pope was “Nature methodised”. Slowly, songs of revolt became visible in works like James Thomson’s ‘The Seasons’ ( 1726 ), Thomas Gray’s ‘Elegy Written in Country Churchyard’ also exhibited early traits of romanticism. In 1798, the publication of The Lyrical Ballads of Wordsworth and Coleridge finally made a sharp distinction between the two modes of literature.

Romanticism is the name given to the new tendency. It was in revolt against authority tradition and convention whether political, social, religious or literary. It expressed a new delight in simplicity of thence, feeling and expression in the worship of nature and in the familiarity with the lives and thoughts of humble men and women. At the same time, it was fascinated by the Mobid ( strange )and the supernatural and also by whatever was remote in time like the pagan world and the middle ages and by the exotic legends and splendours of the east.

From Preface To Lyrical Ballads.

W. Wordswoth.

The primary aim of the poems was to choose incidents and situations from common life in common language. At the same time imagination is used so,ordinary things appear unusual. The primary laws of nature is traced. Humble and rustic life ( simple country people ) was chosen because in this condition ‘the essential passions’ or ‘the basic passions’ of the heart find a better background in which they mature. In the humble and rustic life the basic passions are less under restraint ( under less pressure because of no competition ) and the basic passions are able to express themselves through the use of the simple language of village life ( plainer and more emphatic language ). In this condition our elementary ( basic ) feeling exist in a state of simplicity ( feeling are not mixed and altered ) and they are easily understood and effectively communicated to all. The elementary feelings are therefore durable.

The language of the humble and rustic is adopted because the humble and rustic have same narrow circles in which they interact and therefore they are less under the influence of social vanity. That is why they are able to convey their feelings and opinions in simple and unelaborated expressions. Thirdly, such a language arises out of an experience which is permanent. This language has a quality to be philosophical as it talks talks of the sympathies of men.

Function Of Criticism 

The function of criticism by T. S. Eliot published in 1923 was an outcome of controversy generated by his earlier essay - ‘Tradition and Individual Talent’ ( 1919 ) which John Middleton Murray criticised. Eliot’s views published in that essay gives importance to the historic sense and traditional values of an artist. Eliot wrote the present essay as a reply to Murray’s criticism. Besides criticising his wives, here he sets down his critical stand an issues like the meaning of criticism, the relationship between criticism and creativity, the qualification of a critic and the importance of facts in a critical activity. All this said with the force of authority born out of his stature as a great pact and his stupendous ( very big ) scholarship.

John Wayward writes ;

“I cannot think of a critic who has been more widely read and discussed in his own lifetime, and not only in English but in almost every language, except Russian, throughout the civilised world.”

Eliot begins the essay, by referring to certain ideas he had put forward in his earlier essays, traditional and individual talent. This is because those ideas are relevant to the present essay. In the earlier essay he said that there os an unbroken tradition in literature from former down to this present age. For an artist this tradition is the authority to which he has to owe elegance.

Eliot is clear about the function of criticism, the chief function of criticism is “elucination” of works of art and the correction of taste.”

In this essay, the function of criticism Eliot further adds that the aim of criticism is  “the promotion of understanding and enjoyment of literature.”

Eliot feels that it is not always easy to describe whether or not a critic has been able to fulfil his taste completely. This is because the fact that some critics give expression to their prejudices, whims and likes and dislikes. They do that because they owe their livelihood to such differences and audits. In Eliot such critics are of no value. 

Eliot does not accept Murray;s distinction between classicism and romanticism. Murray says that the genius of the French is classicist and that of the English is romantic. Murray also equates classicism with catholicism and protesticism. Eliot is not happy with this generalisation. He believes that the difference between classicism and romanticism is ;

“the difference between the complete and the fragmentary, the adult and the immature, the orderly and chaotic.”

Eliot is also against the inner voice concept of literary criticism because the function of criticism is to discover some common principles that can lead to the improvement of art. This function could be served only with obedience to the laws and tradition of art, which have been derived from the experience of ages.

Thus, someone believing in the inner voice cannot value criticism. He calls the inner voice as ‘whiggery’.

In the final part of the essay Eliot deals with the major issues related to literary criticism. First issue relates to the distinction between the critical and creative activity. Such a distinction to Eliot is unsatisfactory, he refers to Arnold’s distinction between the critical and the creative and says that such a distinction not valid. According to Eliot a large part of the work of an author in composing his writings is ‘critical labour’. The author in this way criticises his own work by shifting, combining, correcting and testing. Eliot believes that the criticism by a writer of his own work is the best criticism. He even goes to the extent of saying that some creative writers are superior to others because they have a superior critical ability. Thus, Eliot thinks that it is a mistake to separate the creative and the critical activity. He asks “if so large a part of creation is really the criticism is not a large part of what is called critical writing is really creative.”

However, his states that there is a fundamental between creation and criticism creation has no conscious aims but criticism has fixed purpose concerned to something other than itself. Criticism has no conscious aims but criticism has fixed purpose concerned to something other than itself. Criticism could not be autotelic and is aimed at the elucidation of works of art.

Eliot then discusses the qualification of a critic, according to him an ideal critic must have : ‘A very highly developed sense of fact.” He defines fact that has been into “something precise tractable, under control  describing the use of critic”, Eliot says “comparison and analysis are the chief tools of the critic.”

We can compare and analyse successfully only when he knows the fact relating to the literary work. The facts however must be handled with care. He must be able to discuss technical aspects of a literary text like structure and theme and not waste his time in such irrelevant facts such as the number of giraffes in the novels. Thus, facts must be used with cave so that “we are masters and not servants of facts.”

Eliot also believes that critics should read the works themselves rather than reading views about the work. He is against ‘lemon squeeze’ critics who try to squeeze too many meanings from the text. Thus, a good critic follows tradition judges on the basis of facts and his objective. He should not be prejudiced on the basis of some preconceived theories.

Eliot made major contribution to English criticism, George Watson rightly says ;

“Eliot made English criticism look different, but not in a simple sense.”

Watson is struggling that Eliot’s critical methods are revolutionary. He is an extremely wide read critic. In his present essay he uses many quotations. These quotations are made to do the critics works and the reader is made to work on them. ‘The Function Of Criticism’ shows that Eliot took a classicist position. The objective and the scientific approach to criticism sets Eliot apart from many critics who came before him.

From Work To Text 

Roland Barthes was one of the French theorists of the 1960’s and 1970’s. He defines literature as “A message of the signification of things and not their meaning.” By the word, ‘signification’ he understands the process which produces the meaning and not the meaning itself ( process to produce meaning ) . In the essay ‘From Work To Text’ he has studied ‘literary work’ in the light of ‘structuralist’ and ‘post structuralist’ approach to language and meaning. The study of literature has become an inter disciplinary activity.

At the outset of the essay Barthes says that the concept of language and literary work has undergone a change over the past several years. This change is due to a current development in the field of linguistics, anthropology, Marksiom and psychoanalysis. Hence, the approach to criticism has become interdisciplinary and it is associated with a new language. This approach also indicates the study of intertextually which announces that a text is a stratified structure containing echoes and references to other texts. 

Barthes wants a combined approach of Marxism Freudianism and structuralism ( way to analyse it observing its form ), to relativise the scriptures , the readers and the observers ( critics ) relationship. He reveals that the traditional notion of ‘work’ is displaced by a new one called ‘text’. In the essay he bring forward some proposition which indicates what the writer understands by the term ‘text’ and how is it different from ‘work’.

First, the ‘text’ must not be thought as a defined object. One must careful not to say that works are classical while texts are avant garde ( something which is new and brings out a revolution ). They should not be distinguished in terms of modernity and antiqueness. A very ancient work contains ‘some text’ while many products of contemporary literature are text at all. The differences between the work and the text is that ‘ the work is concrete ( product of writer ) occupying portion of book space, the text on the other hand is a methodological field. 

Barthes is of opinion that the opposition between the work and the text recalls the distinction between ‘reality and real’ as proposed by Lacan. The former is displayed, the later is demonstrated ( explaining with proof ). In the same way, the work can be seen in book stores in cast catalogue and on course lists while the text reveals itself and articulates itself according to /against rules.

The second proposition is that the text does not come to stop with good literature. It is difficult to describe the text, because it defies the classification on the basis of genre; it implies an experience which is felt commonly. A poet, a novelist, an essayists, an economist, a philosopher and even a mystic are said to have written ‘texts’. Barthes says that “the text is that which goes to the limit of the rules of enunciation ( rationality, readability and so on )”

Thirdly, the text is approached and experiences in relation to sign and the work closes itself on a signified. A sign consists of a signifier and signified. The field of the text is that of a signifier whereas the work closes itself on a signified. Barthes states that the work is moderately symbolic but a text is radically symbolic. In this way the text is restored to language. Like language it is structured but decentered without closure. ( Many meaning can be taken from ‘text’ but very limited meaning can be taken from ‘work’. )

The fourth assumption is that the text is plural. Barthes goes on to say that the text’s plurality depends on the plurality of signifiers that weave it. The text is like a cloth. In fact, Barthes believes that the text does not have fixity of meaning rather it has potentiality for multiple meaning. Hence, text is plural.

The fifth assumption holds that the work is caught up in a process of filiation ( interconnected ). Each text is ‘inter text of another text’. The reader should be in search for the ‘source of’ and ‘influence upon’ a work. Here, Barthes welcomes the author’s right in the interpretation of a text. He says. 

“it is not that the author cannot ‘come back’ into the Text; however, he can only do so as a ‘guest’ so to speak.”

The sixth assumption is that the work is an object of consumption. The reader / the critic for that matter is an active consumer of the literary text. The text acts upon the reader and makes him reproduce the text in the reading process. The role of the leader is that of the interpreter and hence the critic is ‘The Co-Author’ of a text who executes the work. The text asks the reader for an active collaboration. This is a great innovation. Many people feel bored while confronting the modern text or the movie or printing because they cannot produce the text, play it, open it, out and make it go.

Barthes final proposition reveals the approach of pleasure through the text. He says that there certainly exists a pleasure associated with the text. ‘The work’ gives pleasure to the reader, where as the text provides him, enjoyment, which is pleasure without separation. While the reader goes through a work he derives pleasure out of it but he rarely reproduces the work in the reading process. On the other hand, while reading a text. The reader or the critic interprets the text and recreates it and enjoys it. 

Essays ( Udita Ma'am )

Sir Roger At Home.

Joseph Addison’s essay Sir Roger At Home is one of his contributions to the periodical The Spectator ( 1711-1714 ) which was run by ‘Richard Steele’ and ‘Addison’ himself. This essay features Sir Roger De Coverly, an important character in ‘The Spectator Club’ presented in the essays of Steele and Addison. Sir Roger represents the typical old fashioned country gentleman of the 18th century English society. Addison writes in a conversational witty as well as graceful style. His style is an example of what  Dr. Samuel Jonson describes as the ‘middle style’. Addison presents his views on developing good sense in one’s personality. He is a classicist as he highlights the principle of balance and objectivity in all area of life.

The essay begins in the narrative form as the narrator describes his experience of being a guest at the country house of Sir Roger. The narrator is honest to the readers. He admits that he is quite shy and he appreciates that Sir Roger does not force him to talk to other villagers. The narrator praises Sir Roger and other members of the household.

“I am the more at the ease in Sir Roger’s family because it consists of sober and staid persons…The knight is the best master in the world… a mixture of the father and the master of the family…”

Sir Roger is a kind and good natured man. His servants have been with him for a long time. They genuinely love him and care for him with a tender touch the narrator points out that the Sir Roger’s kindness extends to the old house dog and the old pet horse.

Sir Roger’s character sketch becomes authentic as the narrator honesty mentions the peculiarities of Sir Roger. Sir Roger is described as a “humorist”, one who is moody and eccentric. It makes his likes, dislikes, opinions and feelings quite colourful and interesting. For example the Chaplain ( priest ) who has been in his parish for thirty years, is not a scholar in classical greek and Latin. Sir Roger without much classical learning “was afraid of being insulted with Latin and Greek at his own tale”. In place of hiring a scholar Sir Roger had made sure that the priest was a good amicable and sensible man.

The focus shifts to the characterisation of the priest. The priest is frugal in his needs. He is an expert at resolving disputes among people on the request of Sir Roger every Sunday. He presents one sermon choosing from the best English sermons. People find his preaching practically useful. In his mouth sermons become ‘a continued system of practical divinity.’ The narrator finds the priest to be very efficient in motivating people with his clear mind and good voice.

“A sermon repeated after this manner is like the composition of a poet in the mouth of a graceful action.”

Such good preachers can help people understand religion and morality in a better way.

Like the other essays of Joseph Addison this essay is an effort to uphold moral and social values in the post-restoration English society running away from puritanism. Addison promotes the significance of balance and common sense. This essay presents several examples of gentle humour. The tone is not bitter or sarcastic or didactic. Such essays of Addison contain good examples of characterisation so these essays have the seeds of the modern English novel. There are realistic observations on the contemporary society the diction is simple and conversational yet there are touches of poetic beauty. According David Daiches Addison succeeds to ‘enliven morality with wit and to temper wit with morality.’

Recollections Of Childhood

‘Sir Richard Steele’s essay’ ‘Recollections of childhood’ contemplates the effect of death and the memory of death on a persons experience of life. Based on his personal experience of witnessing the demise of loved ones in his formative years, this essay analyses various aspects of death. Steele published this essay in the periodical, ‘The Tatler’ which was run by Joseph Addison and Steele himself. Through his insightful reflections on life, death and human nature Steele much like Addison, highlights the neo-classical ideals of balance, good sense and moral integrity. He writes in a conversational yet refined style, using humour and changing the tone according to situation.

This essay opens with an interesting observation. Many people enjoy life only by sharing every experience with others but some people are happy in keeping things to themselves. Such people protect their privacy to honour the memory of their loved ones who are no longer alive in the manner of a real conversation the narrator moves from observation to personal experience. One evening, the narrator sat down alone to think of his dead companions, he still missed them but his sorrow had become less intense. The message is that the time is a great healer. With time the human mind goes away from sorrow. This allows us to go on with life. 

Looking at the other side of the situation the narrator points out that one must at times remember unhappy experiences like someones death. Human mind loves to be excited with desire and to be impatient in the face of problems. Unpleasant memories take the mind, “into that sobriety of though which poises the heart”. The mind becomes calm once it realises that life is a mixed bag of joy and sorrow. To prepare oneself for future one must sometimes think of the past. It is just like winding up and out of order clock by making its hand move across the digits.

The narrator proceeds to think about his own experience with death. His first experience of sorrow was at the age of five when his father passed away. The narrator could not exactly understand everything but by watching his mother who had “a dignity in her grief” the narrator developed a sympathetic nature since that time he began to experience pity for the sorrow of other. Commenting on the significance of childhood experience the narrator writes,

“The mind in infancy is …like the body in embryo…”

If a birthmark develops on a baby in the mothers womb it cannot be removed after the baby is born. Similarly ones mind is strongly influenced by childhood experiences. Such experiences are hard to remove even when grows up.

The narrator presents a gentle touch of irony. He inherited the qualities of pity and gentleness from his mother but these qualities do not prove prove to be practically beneficial to the world. He becomes too kind and easy to be cheated.

“…and unmanly gentleness of mind which has since ensnared me into ten thousand calamities and from where I can read no advantage…”

However, he is no sorry to be gentle and kind. His gentleness allows him to relive and feel the memories of the past.

People feel a great sense of loss on the ‘untimely and unhappy deaths’ of young men and women. For many people life is a burden yet one feels sorry when death takes away the burden of life. For example when a young soldier dies one feels that the young man could have had a long happy life, had he not been a soldier. Young soldiers have to sacrifice themselves for the political ambitions of leaders. People have great respect for the sacrifices of soldiers but when one thinks of the people who lose their loved ones or those who die young :

“…pity enters with an unmixed softness and possess all our souls at once.”

At this point, the narrator recalls the untimely death of the first girl he ever loved. He wonders why death is so cruel to the young and the innocent. He can still remember his beloved vividly. Death always comes all of a sudden. In the same week the narrator had seen his beloved dressed for a ballad in a shroud. He still cannot accept her death at such a young age. He pours his love and sorrow in a rhetorical question :

“How ill did the habit of death become the pretty trifler ?”

This part of the essay uncovers the poignant expression of emotional anguish. However, the narrator goes back to his objective and balanced tone and concludes the essay with the mention of getting together with friends.

The essay ‘Recollection of Childhood’ presents a well rounded attempt to analyse various aspects of death. Steele blends together anecdotes realistic observation and intelligent reflection. In a conversational tone, the narrator communicate with the reader. Although, the focus is on death the tone is not too sentimental. There are various example of irony, gentle humour and emotional moments. The diction is simple. The length and structure of the sentences vary according to the changing moods of the narrator. This essay is a remarkable example of drawing universal insight from personal experience.

On National Prejudice

-Oliver Goldsmith

Oliver Goldsmith’s essay, ‘On National Prejudices’ criticises jingoism ( extreme patriotism ) which makes a person to overlook the problems in his own country and consider all other countries to be inferior. This national prejudice stems out of the general human tendency to be prejudiced. This essay is based on the neoclassical ideals of reason and common sense.

The writer begins the essay of remembering an incident. He calls himself a traveller at heart. He loves to observe the people he sees. Once he met some English gentlemen who believed that the English people were perfect and people of other countries had many weaknesses. The writer could see that their opinion was not logical although such opinions were very common in 18th century England. Using irony the gentleman’s opinion is called “a learned and judicious remark”.

The gentlemen assumed that writer had the same opinion. They forced him to speak. The writer did not want to be dishonest.

“I always hold it for a maxim to speak my real sentiments.”

He pointed out that it was incorrect to say that the Englishmen were perfect because in many ways the Dutch, the French, the Germans and the Spanish were better than the English people. The gentlemen could not digest such honest. They felt that the writer was an ‘invert’ ( confirmed ) enemy of England and did not have the moral right to be an English citizen. The writer knew that the gentlemen were beyond correction. So, he went away.

The writer refers to the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates who called himself ‘a citizen of the world’. People do not think in terms of the humanity but divide themselves according to their countries. Uneducated people do not get the chance to correct their opinion by ‘reading, traveling or conversing with foreigners’. However, even the educated people are not free from prejudices and parochialism. The writer speaks out against all kind of preconception. Social status or money cannot make a person a gentleman if one is prejudiced. He claims that, “an exemption from prejudice” is the “characteristical mark of gentleman…”

The writer looks into the point of view of the jingoist. People who have no merit talk about the greatness of the country only to hide their own weaknesses. Such people are like slender vine that cannot stand alone and needs support of the strong oak tree. Although national prejudice grows out of love for the country it is an unnatural and undesirable part of patriotism. Such a bad thing should be removed so that the goodness of patriotism is not corrupted. The writer uses the analogy of religion. Superstition and communalism grow out of religion but they are unnecessary an injurious to religion. Religion is like a “a heavenly plant” of which these two things are the “ bastard sprouts”. Religion can flourish only when there is no superstition or communalism.

The writer encourages everyone to reject jingoism and uphold cosmopolitanism. He puts ahead a rhetorical question.

“Is it not very possible that I may love my own country without hating the natives of other countries ?”

The writer would rather call himself a citizen of the world than stick to a particular country. 

The essay critics narrow mindedness and upholds the neoclassical principles of reason and objectivity. Their is also a personal touch as the writer talks about his personal views on the issue of national prejudice. He uses appropriate metaphors and allusion to Socrates’ irony and humour. The diction is simple and the tone is direct and to the point. The essay has a universal appeal as the world always suffers because of international conflicts based on the illogical concept of jingoism.

Character Analysis Of  ‘A Funeral’

The essay A Funeral written E.V. Lucas is an important example of personal essay. Along with presenting with a pen picture of the scholar W.J. Craig, the essay also describes the writer’s candid thoughts on death and the resilience of life. The essay is full of good natured humour. It’s style is quite similar to the style of essays of Charles Lamb. 

The essay begins with the description of A Funeral scene in the churchyard. At the same time, a football match is going on in nearby field. The writer agrees that

“In the midst of death we are in life…”

This is an inversion of the biblical idea that in life there is death. Death and Life are inseparable. The football match need not be stopped by the funeral. 

The funeral is of the Irish Scholar W.J. Craig. He was a 63 year old man. Happy, honest, cheerful and with the ‘heart of a child’. He never tried to hide his thoughts and wisdom. People could easily share his valuable knowledge.

“…His brain was like a beehive under glass - you could match the working and the honey in it.”

Craig did not have many friends or relatives but he was helpful to everyone. He was not very methodical. He had a short temper wherever he saw somebody being disrespected. His spontaneity and generosity and chivalrous temper were the typical ‘Irish Qualities’. He was also famous for mixing excellent whisky punch.

The portrait of W.J. Craig becomes comprehensive because it includes his shortcomings and quirks. The writer mention a humorous anecdote. Craig’s handwriting was very bad. One day two recipients of his letters had ended up asking each other to help in reading those letters. His love for reading also made him a little quirky. Even on a local train when the journey was very short, he always carried to read them on the way. However he did not have any intention to criticise or ridicule others.

“He had indeed no satire in him. He spoke his mind and it was over.”

People realised that death has revealed Craig from the lonely life of a sick old bachelor. However, it is said that death brought an end to the ‘storied brain’ of Craig, which was full of lifetime of knowledge. This sense of loss appears to be ultimate victory of death. People say that the mind and the soul are immortal. Even St. Paul stated that death cannot defeat life but all this appears to be totally ironical when death takes away someone we love.

The writer observes the scene as the funeral gradually concludes with the fine sense of observation and humour, he point out that people are not supposed to put on cap or hat at a funeral. But, since it is very cold the old clergyman wears a black skullcap ‘which God in his infinite mercy either completely overlooks or seeing smiles at’. After the funeral, people go back and exchange their memories of the person who is no more.

This essay is a character sketch as well as a realistic analysis of people’s reaction to death. The writer’s shares his personal thoughts and experience with the readers. There are several allusion to the bible. The writer uses several long sentences. Although the content is philosophical to an extent. The use of gentle humour makes this essay remarkably interesting. 

Critical Analysis Of ‘The Two Races Of Men’

Charles Lamb’s essay ‘The Two Races Of Men’ is a representative example of the personal essay. This essay presents the character of ‘borrowers’ using irony, pathos and mocked heroic humour. Lamb uses personal experiences with a lot of humour to present his irritation with people to borrow money or books. Also talks about his friendship and admiration for the romantic poet Coleridge. He suggests that unlike money the treasure books must be shared with real scholars. Like many of his other essays, this essay is also narrated by Elia, a persona created by Lamb.

The title and the opening line reflects the mock heroic humour. The human species divided into the two races but these races are simply “the men who borrow and the men who lend.” The reference to the ancient tribes of Parthians and Elamites shows that borrowers have always been there and it is a destiny of the lender to serve the borrower. The borrower is always cheerful “taking no more thought than lollies”. For the borrower the property of other people is the property of humanity. So he thinks that he has the right to take money from others. Using mock heroic humour, Elia says that the borrower is above the distinction of ‘I’ and ‘You’.

The borrower can borrow money anytime, anywhere and from anyone. Life is a party for the borrower.

“Everyday in his candlemas or his feast of Holy Michael.”

The lender is always helpless. The writer refers to a story in Aesop’s fables in which the wind an the sun had a contest. A traveller was wearing a cloak. The wind blew very hard so theta the traveller would be cold and would not remove the cloak but the sun became very hot and the traveller finally took off his cloak. If the lender is like the traveler, his money is like the cloak and the borrower is as powerful as the sun takes away money from the lender.

As an example of borrower, Elia describes his friend Ralph Begod ( he was actually John Fenwick, editor of the Albion ), Ralph claimed that he belonged to royal family. He spent all his money with ‘ noble disinterestedness’ after wasting his own money. 

“He set forth like some Alexander upon his great enterprises borrowing and to borrow.”

These lines generate humour with the help of irony and anticlimax like every other borrower, Ralph was shameless. He was proud of borrowing money. Using hyperbole, Elia exclaims that Ralph seems to have taken money from at least one tenth of the total population of the England. However, Ralph was always without money. Elia fails to understands how quickly Ralph wasted the borrower’s money. Elia wonders if Ralph believed that ‘money kept longer than stinks’ or if Ralph literally threw away all his money in pond. The writer uses the reference to a story from bible. In a story Abraham left his mistress Hagar and his illegitimate son Ishmael in the jungle. Ralph also puts away all money he ever gets. It was difficult to refuse giving money to Ralph because he was very confident. He ‘anticipated’ no excuse and found none. With great irony Elia thinks that “little men” as compared to a borrower like Ralph. Elia is more threatened by friends who borrow his books. Referring to the romantic poet Coleridge as Silas Tomkyn Cumberbatch Elia remembers how he had to lend many of his books to Coleridge. Coleridge felt that a book should be used by a person who can understand the book. Going by this logic he took away books like Sir Thomas Browne’s treatise and ‘Lyin Burial’. Elia knows that Coleridge is a real scholar. Elia calls himself “a foolish lover”. To praise his mistress in the presence of arrival, more qualified to carry her of then himself.”

By borrowing books Coleridge benefits Elia in two ways. Books returned by Coleridge became more valuable as they often contain annotations and notes written by Coleridge. On the other hand, Coleridge often brings book then from other and by his mistress leaves them at Elia’s house. Elia looks after these twice deserted books just like his own books. Elia is happy to show his books with a real book lover like Coleridge. He praises Coleridge 

“I counsel thee shut not thy heart nor thy literary against ST. Coleridge.”

Through the persona of Elia, Lamb uses his own opinion and anecdotes ( personal experiences ) to bring out the personality of borrower with affection and respect for Coleridge. Lamb percents several features of Coleridge’s personality. These elements taken from the personal lives of Charles Lamb make this essay an example of the personal essay. There are various illusions to the bible and to the several real people and books. Lamb always uses good natured human through literary devices like irony, anticlimax and hyperbole. Although, he sometimes gives advice to the reader. He is never satirical or didactic. He often uses long elaborated sentences and Latin and Greek words. Yet it is never very difficult to understand and enjoy his writing. As these characteristics make Charles Lamb, the king of English Essayists.

Critical Analysis of  “On Superstition”. 

The essay ‘On Superstition’ written by A.G. Gardiner explores the universal issue of superstitions. Without being judgemental the writer examines how and why superstitions began. He points on the logic behind a few superstition but he argues that people need to stop fearing such old beliefs. He takes example from daily life as well as history. The essay reflects a balanced point of view and a gentle sense of humour.

The modern educated people know that there is no truth in superstitions. However, deep inside the mind, there still is the old fear of superstitions. If a murder takes place at a house numbered 13, people know that the number of the house has nothin to do with the murder. Still, people remember that incident only because of the ancient superstition that 13 is unlucky. The writer shows the reality of people’s reaction towards the superstition.

“We might  even refuse to admit it to ourselves but it is there.”

Sometimes there is a logic hidden behind a superstition. Many hospitals do not have a bed, numbered 13. The patient might be worried about his recovery if he gets bed number 13. The writer remembers how a wounded soldier became depressed because of a pimple on his node and his depression finally killed him. Hospitals act according to the superstition of number 13 only to present tension in patients. The writer also remembers that according to a superstition it is unlucky to walk under a ladder when the ladder has been put against a wall. He thinks that it is not superstition but practical wisdom. If someone walls under the ladder something may fall from the top of the ladder. Using humour he says that the fellow at the top of the ladder may even drape himself. He argues that. 

“No doubt many of our superstitions have these common place and sensible origins.”

The writer is often confused whether he should challenge superstitious or simply forget about superstitions. It is an ‘absurd dilemma’ but he argues that are should not fear superstitions. Superstitions are outdated. In the past people did not understand and many things about nature. So, he used to be afraid of the unknown things. This fear gave wise to superstitions. Because of this fear people began to believe on astrologers astrologers, magicians and omens. Those believes were sometimes right and sometimes wrong but ‘whether right or wrong they have equally meaningless’. In the present time science has given us knowledge about everything so, people don’t need to be afraid of superstitions. However, modern man should not be proud, he should be thankful that because of knowledge he has escaped the “gratesque shadows” of ignorance that covered the ancient world. Modern man has the light of knowledge,  he still does not know everything but now he is able to think and act logically. 

The essay ‘on superstition’ brings out the psychological motivation which makes people act on superstitious beliefs. The writer approaches the issue in an essay going conversational manner but he gives solid analysis to the various aspects of superstition. Examples are taken from ordinary life as well as classical greek and roman history. The choice of words appeals to the educated and thoughtful reader. Towards, the conclusion there is a preference to Thomas Hardy’s work ‘The Dynasts’. In can he said that with the help of gentle humour and examples of common superstitions the essays becomes remarkably appealing. 

Critical Analysis Of Walking Tours.

The essay ‘Walking Tours’ written by Robert Louis Stevenson brings out the pleasures one can get on a walking tour. This essay analyses the traveller’s thoughts at every stage of the walking tour. The essay also explains how the traveller’s body, mind and spirit benefit from the experience of walking. The personal note is prominent as the writer address the reader directly and mentions several anecdotes and allusions.

Walking is not just about admiring the landscape. Walking is a pleasure in itself. It starts with hope and energy and it brings peace and satisfaction. Walking is “more delicate in the smaller dose.” Walking should not be overdone otherwise the person becomes exhausted.

Walking should be done alone. Initially the solitude can be challenging but gradually the person begins to enjoy the walk. While walking some people observe the landscape as they want to write it. Some are happy just to watch the natural beauty. There are some people who enjoy the walk in the real sense. Like the romantic writer William Hazlitt, they expresses their happiness openly and they might end up singing or dancing on the road. Other people often find them eccentric. 

When walking is done in a relaxed manner, the mind becomes calm. The mind stops thinking about big things. It enjoys the tiny sensations. The purely animal pleasures… the delight of every inhalation” and the beauty of the moment. The writer presents a delicate image of a person taking a break on a walking tour - the person sits under the blue sky with sky with birds singing around him. The sunshine touching his feet and the cool breeze rushing against his collar. The traveller is finally out of the stress and rush of urban life and he forgets to count time by his watch.

The best part of a walking tour comes at night after dinner. Walking washes away the negative qualities like pride and narrow-mindedness . The mind becomes clean like the mind of a child or a scientist. The mind is ready to absorb the tiny delightful things. The person understands that in the days again time he has forgotten to enjoy the moment and to cherish the past one should look at life from a distance. One should not be too sentimental or attached with anything in life. Life is like a process. We can enjoy it more observers and less as participants. 

“…it is not they who carry flags but they who look upon it from a private chamber who have the fun of the procession.”

Nothing is permanent in life. The Roman Empire was as temporary as a tobacco pipe. If one realises this one can enjoy everything in life. One might wonder if such thoughts are of any use but it is true that walking brings vivid experiences to the mind and body.

This essay presents a common relatable topic in a new light. The experience of walking is broken down step by step. In a logical scholarly approach the writer blends together the experience of walking with the deeper reality of life. For e.g., He shows that urban life is a race against time and modern men do not enjoy the beauty of moment. There are several allusions such as the allusion to William Hazlitt. There are poetic touches as in the lines describing the traveler taking a break on a walking tour. Finally, the essay highlights that it is important to live without much attachment so that one can enjoy the small things in the ever changing life.

Critical Analysis Of The Essay “Of Studies”

Francis Bacon’s essay “Of Studies” is a  representative example of his essays full of epigrammatic insight into practical affairs of life. Bacon is regraded as the pioneer of the English essay. Like almost all of his other essays of studies presents his accurate observation of human behaviour as it brings out the relations of knowledge and character. His prose is concise and to the point. 

The essay opens with a concrete statement.

“Studies served far delight for ornament and for ability.”

People may read books to enjoy or to show off their knowledge during discussions but a person should study in order to increase his wisdom regarding practical affairs. In this way study should always be relate to practical life, knowledge and practical experience are mutually complimentary. Knowledge polishes one’s natural talent and experience helps to utilise knowledge in a useful way. The writer effectively uses the metaphor of plants.

“They perfect nature and are perfected by experience : for natural abilities are like natural plants that need pruning by study…”

People should read books in order to enhance their understanding and judgement. Every book is not suitable for this purpose. Same books are only to tasted. Some others are for general reading club there are same selected books that should be read again and again. Reading the summary of any book cannot give real knowledge because “distilled books are like common distilled water flashy things”.

Reading books is not enough to get the full benefit of knowledge. Reading can only give knowledge. Discussion of that knowledge increase intentions, and writing about that knowledge helps to remember it for a long time. In this way knowledge comes in a continuous process.

Different types of knowledge have different advantages. The writer quotes a latin sentence which means ‘studies influence character’. Different diseases of the body can be removed with the suitable exercises. Similarly, every weakness of the mind can be cured with the help of a particular kind of knowledge. If a man has poor concentration he should practice mathematics to improve his concentration. If a man cannot differentiate between things he should study the writings of ancient medieval philosophers who had the ability to find out difference even when differences don’t really exist. If a man cannot argue he should take lessons from the arguments of lawyers. Finally, the essay ends with a clear cut opinion of the writer.

“So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt.”

Bacon’s essay have a clear didactic touch. The writer does not have a conversational tone. His approach is like the approach of a scholar who teaches common men. The tone is formal and serious. Most of the sentences have a proverbial quality. Example and metaphors are taken from common life. There are reference to medieval philosophers. There is also a quotation from a text in Latin. This essay like other essays of Francis Bacon is remarkable as an early example of the standard English Essay.